Editing Marshall Applewhite

{{short description|American religious leader (1931–1997)}}
{{Use American English|date = November 2019}}
{{Use mdy dates|date = November 2019}}
{{Use shortened footnotes|date = November 2022}}
{{Infobox person
| name          = Marshall Applewhite
| image         = Marshall Applewhite.jpg
| alt           = A wide-eyed man addressing a camera
| caption       = Applewhite in an initiation video for Heaven's Gate in 1996
| birth_name    = Marshall Herff Applewhite Jr.
| birth_date    = {{birth date|1931|5|17}}
| birth_place   = [[Spur, Texas]], U.S.
| alma_mater    = {{plainlist}}
*[[Austin College]] ([[Bachelor of Arts|BA]])
*[[University of Colorado Boulder]] ([[Master of Arts|MA]])
{{endplainlist}}
| death_date    = {{death date and age|1997|3|24|1931|5|17}}
| death_place   = [[Rancho Santa Fe, California]], U.S.
| death_cause   = [[Suicide]] by [[suffocation]]
| body_discovered = March 26, 1997
| other_names   = Do, Tiddly, Nincom, Guinea
| known_for     = Founder of [[Heaven's Gate (religious group)|Heaven's Gate]]
| spouse        = {{marriage|Ann Pearce|1952|1968|end=divorced}}
| children      = 2
}}

'''Marshall Herff Applewhite Jr.''' (May&nbsp;17, 1931&nbsp;– March 24, 1997), also known as '''Do''',{{efn|name=dough}} among other names,{{efn|name=name}} was an American religious leader who founded and led the  [[Heaven's Gate (religious group)|Heaven's Gate]] new religious movement (often described as a [[cult]]), and organized their [[mass suicide]] in 1997. The suicide is the largest mass suicide to occur inside the [[United States]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://abcnews.go.com/US/heavens-gate-survivor-reflects-cults-mass-suicide-25/story?id=83213680|title=Heaven's Gate survivor reflects on the cult's mass suicide 25 years ago|website=[[ABC News (United States)|ABC News]] }}</ref>{{efn|While the [[People's Temple]] led by [[Jim Jones]] was based in the [[United States]], the [[Jonestown|mass murder-suicide at Jonestown]] occurred in [[Guyana]].}}

As a young man, Applewhite attended several universities and served in the [[United States Army]]. He initially pursued a career in education until he resigned from the [[University of St. Thomas (Texas)|University of St. Thomas]] in [[Houston]], Texas, in 1970, citing emotional turmoil. His father's death a year later brought on severe [[depression (mood)|depression]]. In 1972, Applewhite developed a close friendship with [[Bonnie Nettles]], a nurse; together, they discussed [[mysticism]] at length and concluded that they were called as divine messengers. They operated a bookstore and teaching center for a short while and then began to travel around the U.S. in 1973 to spread their views. They gained only one convert. In August 1974, Applewhite was arrested in [[Harlingen, Texas]], for failing to return a rental car and was extradited to Missouri where he was subsequently jailed for six months. In jail, he further developed his theology.

After Applewhite's release, he and Nettles travelled to California and Oregon, eventually gaining a group of committed followers. They told their followers that they would be visited by [[Extraterrestrial life|extraterrestrial]]s who would provide them with new bodies. Applewhite initially stated that he and his followers would physically ascend to a spaceship, where their bodies would be transformed, but later he came to believe that their bodies were the mere containers of their souls, which would later be placed into new bodies. These ideas were expressed with language drawn from [[Christian eschatology]], the [[New Age movement]] and American [[popular culture]].

Heaven's Gate received an influx of funds in the late 1970s, which it used to pay housing and other expenses. In 1985, Nettles died, leaving Applewhite distraught and challenging his views on [[entering heaven alive|physical ascension]]. In the early 1990s, the group took more steps to publicize their theology. In 1996, they learned of the approach of [[Comet Hale–Bopp]] and rumors of an accompanying spaceship, concluding that this was the vessel that would take their spirits on board for a journey to another planet. Believing that their souls would ascend to the spaceship and be given new bodies, the group members committed mass suicide in a rented mansion. A [[media circus]] followed the discovery of their bodies. In the aftermath, commentators and academics discussed how Applewhite persuaded people to follow his commands, including suicide. Some commentators attributed his followers' willingness to commit suicide to his skill as a manipulator, while others argued that their willingness was due to their faith in the narrative that he constructed.

==Early life and education==
Marshall Herff Applewhite Jr. was born in [[Spur, Texas]],{{sfn|Associated Press, March 28, 1997}} on May&nbsp;17, 1931, to Marshall Herff Applewhite Sr. and his wife Louise (née Winfield).<ref>[http://search.ancestry.com/cgi-bin/sse.dll?db=TXbirthindex&gss=angs-d&new=1&rank=1&msT=1&gsfn_x=1&gsln=applewhite&gsln_x=1&MSAV=0&uidh=ff5&gl=&gst=&hc=50&fh=50&fsk=BEFpYewIgAAiTQAHYtM-61- Texas Birth Index, online at ancestry.com]</ref> He had three siblings.{{sfnm|Chryssides|2004|1p=355|Steinberg|1997|Harris|1997}} The son of a [[Presbyterianism|Presbyterian]] minister, Applewhite became very religious as a child.{{sfnm|Chryssides|2004|1p=355|Raine|2005|2pp=102–3}}

Applewhite attended [[Roy Miller High School|Corpus Christi High School]] and [[Austin College]];{{sfnm|Davis|2000|1p=244|Steinberg|1997}} at the latter school, he was active in several student organizations and was moderately religious.{{sfn|Steinberg|1997}} He earned a bachelor's degree in philosophy in 1952 and subsequently enrolled at [[Union Presbyterian Seminary]] to study [[theology]], hoping to become a minister.{{sfnm|Chryssides|2004|1p=355|Raine|2005|2p=103}} He married Anne Pearce around that time, and they later had two children, Mark and Lane.{{sfnm|Urban|2000|1p=275|Steinberg|1997}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://gw.geneanet.org/tdowling?lang=en&n=applewhite&oc=1&p=marshall+herff|title=Family tree of Marshall Herff Applewhite|website=Geneanet|language=en|access-date=2019-01-25}}</ref> Early in his seminary studies, Applewhite decided to leave the school to pursue a career in music, becoming the music director of a Presbyterian church in North Carolina.{{sfnm|Chryssides|2004|1p=355|Steinberg|1997}} He was a [[baritone]] singer and enjoyed [[Spiritual (music)|spirituals]] and the music of [[George Frideric Handel|Handel]].{{sfn|Hall|2000|p=150}}

In 1954, Applewhite was drafted by the [[United States Army]] and served in Austria and New Mexico as a member of the [[United States Army Signal Corps|Army Signal Corps]].{{sfn|Steinberg|1997}} He left the military in 1956 and enrolled at the [[University of Colorado Boulder]], where he earned a master's degree in music{{sfnm|Chryssides|2004|1p=355|Steinberg|1997}} and focused on [[musical theater]].{{sfn|Associated Press, March 28, 1997}}

==Career==
Applewhite moved to New York City in an unsuccessful attempt to begin a professional singing career upon finishing his education in Colorado.{{sfn|Associated Press, March 28, 1997}} He then taught at the [[University of Alabama]] (UA).{{sfn|Chryssides|2004|p=355}} Applewhite lost his position there after pursuing a sexual relationship with a male student;{{sfn|Balch|Taylor|2002|p=210}} society was not supportive of same-sex relationships and he was subsequently frustrated by his sexual desires.{{sfnm|1a1=Balch|1a2=Taylor|1y=2002|1p=210|2a1=Raine|2y=2005|2p=107–8}} He separated from his wife when she learned of the affair in 1965, and they divorced three years later.{{sfnm|Raine|2005|1p=103|Lewis|2003|2p=111}} When Applewhite revealed to his parents that he was homosexual, his father rejected him.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_GMmkrXMLDw |title=Heaven's Gate cult members record farewell messages: 20/20 'The Cult Next Door' Preview |publisher=YouTube |date=2022-03-11 |accessdate=2022-03-17}}</ref>

In 1965, after leaving UA, Applewhite moved to [[Houston]] to serve as chair of the music department at the [[University of St. Thomas (Texas)|University of St. Thomas]].{{sfnm|Raine|2005|1p=103|Chryssides|2004|2p=355|Zeller, "Extraterrestrial Biblical Hermeneutics"|2010|p=39}} His students regarded him as an engaging speaker and a stylish dresser.{{sfnm|Zeller|2006|1p=77|Bearak|1997}} He also became a locally popular singer, serving as the choral director of an [[Episcopal Church (United States)|Episcopal]] church and performing with the [[Houston Grand Opera]].{{sfnm|Zeller, "Extraterrestrial Biblical Hermeneutics"|2010|1p=39|Davis|2000|2p=245|Associated Press, March 28, 1997}} In Houston, Applewhite was briefly [[coming out|openly gay]] but also pursued a relationship with a young woman, who left him under pressure from her family; he was greatly upset by this outcome.{{sfnm|Raine|2005|1p=103|Bearak|1997}} He resigned from the University of St. Thomas in 1970, citing [[depression (mood)|depression]] and other emotional problems.{{sfnm|Chryssides|2004|1p=355|Urban|2000|2p=276}} [[Robert Balch]] and David Taylor, sociologists who studied Applewhite's group, speculate that this departure was prompted by another affair between Applewhite and a student.{{sfn|Balch|Taylor|2003|p=215}} The president of the university later recalled that Applewhite was often mentally jumbled and disorganized near the end of his employment.{{sfn|Hall|2000|pp=150–1}}

In 1971, Applewhite briefly moved to New Mexico, where he operated a [[delicatessen]]. He was popular with customers but decided to return to Texas later that year.{{sfnm|Hall|2000|1p=151|Bearak|1997}} Applewhite's father died around that time; the loss took a significant emotional toll on him, causing severe depression.{{sfnm|Lewis|2003|1p=111|Davis|2000|2p=245}} His debts mounted, leading him to borrow money from friends.{{sfn|Bearak|1997}}

==Introduction to Nettles and first travels==
{{see also|Bonnie Nettles}}
In 1972, Applewhite met [[Bonnie Nettles]], a nurse with an interest in [[Theosophy]] and [[Biblical prophecy]].{{sfnm|Lewis|2003|1p=111|Raine|2005|2p=103}}{{efn|name=meetcute}} The two quickly became close friends;{{sfn|Lewis|2003|p=111}} he later recalled that he felt like he had known her for a long time and concluded that they had met in a [[reincarnation|past life]].{{sfn|Lalich, ''Bounded Choice''|2004|pp=44 & 48}} Nettles told Applewhite their meeting had been foretold to her by [[Extraterrestrial life|extraterrestrial]]s, persuading him that he had a divine assignment.{{sfn|Balch|Taylor|2002|p=210}}{{sfn|Lalich, ''Bounded Choice''|2004|p=43}} By that time, he had begun to investigate alternatives to traditional Christian doctrine, including [[astrology]].{{sfnm|1a1=Balch|1a2=Taylor|1y=2002|1p=210|2a1=Zeller|2y=2006|2p=77}}

Applewhite soon began to live with Nettles. Although they cohabited, their relationship was not a sexual one,{{sfn|Chryssides|2004|p=355}} fulfilling his longtime wish to have a deep and loving, yet [[Platonic love|platonic]], relationship.{{sfn|Partridge|2006|p=50}} Nettles was married with four children, but after she became close with Applewhite, her husband divorced her and she lost custody of the children.{{sfn|Balch|Taylor|2002|p=211}} Applewhite permanently broke off contact with his family as well.{{sfn|Steinberg|1997}} He saw Nettles as his [[soulmate]], and some of his acquaintances later recalled that she had a strong influence on him.{{sfnm|1a1=Urban|1y=2000|1p=276|2a1=Balch|2a2=Taylor|2y=2002|2p=210}} Raine writes that Nettles "was responsible for reinforcing his emerging delusional beliefs",{{sfn|Raine|2005|p=103}} but psychiatrist [[Robert Jay Lifton]] speculates that Nettles' influence helped him avoid further psychological deterioration.{{sfn|Lifton|2000|p=306}}

Applewhite and Nettles opened a bookstore known as the Christian Arts Center, which carried books from a variety of spiritual backgrounds.{{sfnm|Zeller, "Extraterrestrial Biblical Hermeneutics"|2010|1p=40|Hall|2000|2p=152}} They also launched a venture known as Know Place to teach classes on theosophy and [[mysticism]].{{sfn|Zeller, "Extraterrestrial Biblical Hermeneutics"|2010|p=40}}{{sfn|Lalich, ''Bounded Choice''|2004|p=45}} The pair closed these businesses a short time later.{{sfn|Hall|2000|p=152}} In February 1973, Applewhite and Nettles resolved to travel to teach others about their beliefs and drove throughout the Western U.S.;{{sfn|Chryssides|2004|pp=355–6}}{{sfn|Lalich, "Using the Bounded Choice Model"|2004|pp=228–9}}{{sfn|''The San Diego Union-Tribune'', "Heaven's Gate: A Timeline"|1997}} Lifton describes their travels as a "restless, intense, often confused, peripatetic spiritual journey".{{sfn|Lifton|2000|p=308}} While traveling, they had little money and occasionally resorted to selling their blood or working odd jobs for much-needed funds. The pair subsisted solely on bread rolls at times, often camped out, and sometimes did not pay their lodging bills.{{sfn|Bearak|1997}}{{sfn|''The San Diego Union-Tribune'', "Heaven's Gate: A Timeline"|1997}} One of their friends from Houston corresponded with them and accepted their teachings. They visited her in May 1974, and she became their first convert.{{sfn|Hall|2000|p=153}}

While traveling, Applewhite and Nettles pondered the life of [[Francis of Assisi]] and read works by authors including [[Helena Blavatsky]], [[R.&nbsp;D. Laing]], and [[Richard Bach]].{{sfnm|1a1=Zeller|1y=2006|1p=78|2a1=Bearak|2y=1997}}{{sfn|Zeller, ''Prophets and Protons''|2010|p=123}} They kept a [[King James Version]] of the Bible with them and studied several passages from the [[New Testament]], focusing on teachings about [[Christology]], [[asceticism]], and [[Christian eschatology|eschatology]].{{sfn|Zeller, "Extraterrestrial Biblical Hermeneutics"|2010|pp=42–3}} Applewhite also read science fiction, including works by [[Robert A.&nbsp;Heinlein]] and [[Arthur C.&nbsp;Clarke]].{{sfn|Lifton|2000|p=306}} By June 1974, Applewhite and Nettles' beliefs had solidified into a basic outline.{{sfn|Zeller, "Extraterrestrial Biblical Hermeneutics"|2010|p=40}} They concluded that they had been chosen to fulfill biblical prophecies, and that they had been given higher-level minds than other people.{{sfn|Chryssides|2004|p=355}} They wrote a pamphlet that described Jesus' reincarnation as a Texan, a thinly veiled reference to Applewhite.{{sfn|Balch|Taylor|2002|p=211}} Furthermore, they concluded that they were the [[two witnesses]] described in the [[Book of Revelation]] and occasionally visited churches or other spiritual groups to speak of their identities,{{sfnm|Chryssides|2004|1p=356|Zeller, "Extraterrestrial Biblical Hermeneutics"|2010|2p=40}} often referring to themselves as "The Two", or "The [[UFO]] Two".{{sfn|Zeller, ''Prophets and Protons''|2010|p=123}}{{sfn|Urban|2000|p=276}} The pair believed that they would be killed and then [[resurrection|restored to life]] and, in view of others, transported onto a spaceship. This event, which they referred to as "the Demonstration", was to prove their claims.{{sfn|Balch|Taylor|2002|p=211}} To their dismay, these ideas were poorly received.{{sfn|Bearak|1997}}

==Arrest and proselytism==
In August 1974, Applewhite was arrested in [[Harlingen, Texas]], for failing to return a car that he had rented in [[Missouri]].{{sfn|Bearak|1997}}{{sfn|''The San Diego Union-Tribune'', "Heaven's Gate: A Timeline"|1997}} He was extradited to [[St. Louis, Missouri|St.&nbsp;Louis]] and jailed for six months.{{sfn|''The San Diego Union-Tribune'', "Heaven's Gate: A Timeline"|1997}}{{sfn|Chryssides|2004|p=356}} At the time, Applewhite maintained that he had been "[[divine|divinely]] authorized" to keep the car.{{sfn|Bearak|1997}} While jailed, he pondered theology and subsequently abandoned discussion of [[occult]] topics in favor of extraterrestrials and evolution.{{sfn|Chryssides|2004|p=356}}

After Applewhite's release, Nettles and he resolved to contact extraterrestrials and began seeking like-minded followers. They published advertisements for meetings, where they recruited disciples, whom they called "crew".{{sfn|Chryssides|2004|p=356}} At these events, they purported to represent beings from another planet, the Next Level, who sought participants for an experiment. They claimed that those who agreed to take part in the experiment would be brought to a higher evolutionary level.{{sfnm|Goerman|2011|1p=60|Chryssides|2004|2p=357}} Nettles and Applewhite referred to themselves as "Guinea" and "Pig".{{sfn|Chryssides|2004|p=357}} Applewhite described his role as a "lab instructor"{{sfn|Davis|2000|p=252}} and served as the primary speaker, while Nettles occasionally interjected clarifying remarks or corrections.{{sfnm|Lifton|2000|1p=307|Balch|1995|2p=154}} The two seldom personally spoke with attendees, only taking phone numbers with which they could contact them.{{sfn|Balch|Taylor|2003|p=213}} They initially named their organization the Anonymous Sexaholics Celibate Church, but it soon became known as the Human Individual Metamorphosis.{{sfn|Chryssides|2004|pp=356–7}}

Applewhite believed in the [[ancient astronaut]] hypothesis, which claimed that extraterrestrials had visited humanity in the past and placed humans on Earth and would return to collect a select few.{{sfn|Lewis|2003|p=117}} Parts of this teaching bear similarities to the [[Reformed churches|Reformed]] Christian concept of [[Unconditional election|election]], likely owing to Applewhite's Presbyterian upbringing.{{sfn|Partridge|2006|p=53}}

Applewhite and Nettles sent advertisements to groups in [[California]] and were invited to speak to [[New Age]] devotees there in April 1975.{{sfn|''The San Diego Union-Tribune'', "Heaven's Gate: A Timeline"|1997}}{{sfnm|1a1=Bearak|1y=1997|2a1=Partridge|2y=2006|2p=51}} At this meeting, they persuaded about half of the 50 attendees to follow them.{{sfn|Zeller, ''Prophets and Protons''|2010|p=129}} They also focused on college campuses, speaking at [[Cañada College]] in August.{{sfn|Lalich, "Using the Bounded Choice Model"|2004|pp=228–9}}{{sfn|''The San Diego Union-Tribune'', "Heaven's Gate: A Timeline"|1997}} At a meeting in Waldport, Oregon in September 1975, they had further recruitment success—about 30 people left their homes to follow the pair, prompting interest from media outlets.{{sfn|Lewis|2003|p=104}} The coverage was negative; commentators and some former members mocked the group and leveled accusations of [[brainwashing]] against Applewhite and Nettles. Balch and Taylor state that Applewhite and Nettles eschewed pressure tactics, seeking only devoted followers.{{sfn|Balch|Taylor|2002|pp=213–4}}

[[Benjamin E. Zeller]], an academic who studies [[new religious movement|new religion]]s, notes that Applewhite and Nettles' teachings focused on salvation through individual growth and sees this as similar to currents in the era's New Age movement. Likewise, the importance of personal choice was also emphasized.{{sfn|Zeller|2006|pp=82–3}} Applewhite and Nettles denied connection with the New Age movement, viewing it as a human creation.{{sfn|Lalich, ''Bounded Choice''|2004|p=31}} [[Janja Lalich]], a sociologist who studies cults, attributes their recruitment success to their eclectic mix of beliefs and the way that they deviated from typical New Age teachings: discussing literal spaceships while retaining familiar language.{{sfn|Lalich, "Using the Bounded Choice Model"|2004|pp=229–31}}{{sfn|Lalich, ''Bounded Choice''|2004|p=64}} Most of their disciples were young and interested in occultism or otherwise lived outside of mainstream society.{{sfnm|1a1=Lewis|1y=2003|1p=104|2a1=Balch|2a2=Taylor|2y=2002|2p=213}} They came from a variety of religious backgrounds, including [[Eastern religion]]s and [[Scientology]].{{sfn|Lalich, "Using the Bounded Choice Model"|2004|pp=228–9}} Most were well versed in New Age teachings, allowing Applewhite and Nettles to convert them easily.{{sfn|Lewis|2003|p=118}} Applewhite thought that his followers would reach a higher level of being, changing like a caterpillar becoming a butterfly;{{sfn|Raine|2005|p=106}} this example was used in almost all of the group's early literature.{{sfn|Zeller, ''Prophets and Protons''|2010|p=125}} He contended that this would be a "biological change into a different species, casting his teachings as scientific truth in line with secular naturalism."{{sfn|Zeller, "Extraterrestrial Biblical Hermeneutics"|2010|p=41}}{{sfn|Zeller, ''Prophets and Protons''|2010|pp=117 & 122}} He emphasized to his early followers that he was not speaking metaphorically, often using the words "biology" and "chemistry" in his statements.{{sfn|Zeller, ''Prophets and Protons''|2010|pp=127 & 130}} By the mid-1970s, Applewhite attempted to avoid the use of the term "religion", seeing it as inferior to science.{{sfn|Zeller, ''Prophets and Protons''|2010|p=129}}

==Nomadic lifestyle==
[[File:Ottheinrich Folio289r Rev6B.jpg|thumb|upright|A depiction of a scene from the [[Book of Revelation]], which Applewhite believed described interactions between humans and extraterrestrials]]
By 1975, Applewhite and Nettles had taken the names "Bo" and "Peep".{{sfn|Chryssides|2004|p=357}} They had about 70&nbsp;followers and saw themselves as shepherds tending a flock.{{sfnm|1a1=Balch|1a2=Taylor|1y=2002|1p=213|2a1=Bearak|2y=1997}} Applewhite believed that complete separation from earthly desires was a prerequisite of [[entering heaven alive|ascension]] to the Next Level and emphasized passages in the New Testament in which Jesus spoke about forsaking worldly attachments.{{sfnm|1a1=Balch|1a2=Taylor|1y=2002|1p=211|2a1=Zeller, "Extraterrestrial Biblical Hermeneutics"|2y=2010|2p=45}} Members were consequently instructed to renounce: friends, family, media, drugs, alcohol, jewelry, facial hair, and sexuality.{{sfn|Chryssides|2004|p=357}} Furthermore, they were at first required to adopt biblical names. Applewhite and Nettles soon told them to adopt two-syllable names that ended in "ody" and had three consonants in the first syllable,{{sfn|Lalich, "Using the Bounded Choice Model"|2004|pp=232–5}} such as Rkkody, Jmmody, and Lvvody;{{sfn|Zeller, ''Prophets and Protons''|2010|p=219}} Applewhite stated that these names emphasized that his followers were spiritual children.{{sfn|Lalich, "Using the Bounded Choice Model"|2004|pp=232–5}} He, Nettles, and their followers lived what religious scholar [[James R. Lewis (scholar)|James Lewis]] describes as a "quasi-nomadic lifestyle".{{sfn|Lewis|2003|p=111}} They usually stayed at remote campgrounds and did not speak about their beliefs.{{sfn|Balch|Taylor|2002|p=213}} Applewhite and Nettles ceased having public meetings in April 1975,{{sfn|''The San Diego Union-Tribune'', "Heaven's Gate: A Timeline"|1997}} and spent little time teaching doctrine to their converts.{{sfn|Wessinger|2000|p=234}} The pair also had little contact with their dispersed followers, many of whom renounced their allegiance.{{sfn|Chryssides|2004|p=357}}

Applewhite and Nettles feared that they would be assassinated,{{sfn|Lewis|2003|p=111}} and taught their followers that their deaths would be similar to those of the two witnesses of the Book of Revelation.{{sfn|Lewis|2003|p=114}}{{efn|name=rev11}} Balch and Taylor believe that Applewhite's prison experience and early rejection by audiences contributed to this fear.{{sfn|Balch|Taylor|2002|p=212}} Applewhite and Nettles later explained to their followers that the former's treatment by the press was a form of assassination and had fulfilled their prophecy.{{sfn|Balch|Taylor|2002|p=215}} Applewhite took a [[materialism|materialistic]] view of the Bible, seeing it as a record of extraterrestrial contact with humanity.{{sfn|Zeller, "Extraterrestrial Biblical Hermeneutics"|2010|pp=38 & 43}} He drew heavily from the Book of Revelation, although he avoided traditional theological terminology and took a somewhat negative tone towards Christianity.{{sfnm|Chryssides|2004|pp=359–62}}{{sfn|Zeller, ''Prophets and Protons''|2010|pp=124 & 133}} He only lectured about a small number of verses and never tried to develop a system of theology.{{sfn|Chryssides|2004|p=365}}

By early 1976, Applewhite and Nettles had settled on the names "Do" and "Ti";{{sfn|Chryssides|2004|p=357}} Applewhite stated that these were meaningless names.{{sfn|Partridge|2006|p=51}} In June 1976, they gathered their remaining followers at [[Medicine Bow–Routt National Forest]] in southeastern [[Wyoming]], promising a UFO visit.{{sfnm|Chryssides|2004|1p=357|Bearak|1997}} Nettles later announced that the visit had been cancelled. Applewhite and Nettles then split their followers into small groups, which they referred to as "Star Clusters".{{sfn|Chryssides|2004|p=357}}

From 1976 to 1979, the group lived in campgrounds, usually in the [[Rocky Mountains]] or Texas.{{sfn|Bearak|1997}} Applewhite and Nettles began to place greater demands on their followers' heretofore loosely structured lives, which improved membership retention.{{sfn|Davis|2000|p=246}} They typically communicated with their disciples in writing or through assistants.{{sfn|Balch|Taylor|2003|p=230}} Increasingly, they emphasized that they were the only source of truth—the idea that members could receive individual revelations was rejected in an attempt to prevent [[schism]]s.{{sfnm|1a1=Zeller|1y=2006|1p=84|2a1=Balch|2a2=Taylor|2y=2002|2p=226}}{{sfn|Zeller, ''Prophets and Protons''|2010|p=137}} Applewhite also sought to prevent close friendships among his followers, fearing that this could lead to insubordination.{{sfn|Davis|2000|p=257}} He and Nettles insisted that their followers practice what they referred to as "flexibility": strict obedience to their often shifting requests.{{sfn|Davis|2000|pp=246 & 255}} The two leaders limited the group's contacts with those outside the movement, even some who may have been interested in joining, ostensibly to prevent infiltration from hostile parties. In practice, this made their followers completely dependent upon them.{{sfn|Davis|2000|p=248}} Applewhite instructed his disciples to be like children or pets in their submission—their sole responsibility was to obey their leaders.{{sfn|Davis|2000|pp=251 & 7}} Members were encouraged to constantly seek Applewhite's advice and often ask themselves what their leaders would do when making a decision.{{sfn|Balch|Taylor|2002|p=216}} To his followers, he did not seem dictatorial;{{sfn|Davis|2000|p=259}} many of them found him laid back and fatherly.{{sfnm|Lifton|2000|1pp=309–10|Lalich, "Using the Bounded Choice Model"|2004|2pp=233–5}} In his 2000 study of the group, Winston Davis states that Applewhite mastered the "fine art of religious entertainment", noting that many of his disciples seemed to enjoy their service.{{sfn|Davis|2000|p=259}} Applewhite organized seemingly arbitrary rituals that were intended to instill a sense of discipline in his followers; he referred to these tasks as "games".{{sfn|Balch|1995|p=156}} He also watched science fiction television programs with the rest of the group.{{sfn|Daniels|1999|p=210}} Rather than issue direct commands, he attempted to express his preferences and nominally offer his disciples a choice.{{sfn|Lalich, "Using the Bounded Choice Model"|2004|pp=232–5}} He emphasized that students were free to disobey if they chose, in what [[Janja Lalich|Lalich]] dubs the "illusion of choice".{{sfn|Lalich, ''Bounded Choice''|2004|p=83}}

==Housing and control==
In the late 1970s, the group received a large sum of money, possibly an inheritance of a member or donations of followers' income.{{sfnm|Chryssides|2004|1p=357|Bearak|1997}} This capital was used to rent houses, initially in [[Denver]] and later in [[Dallas]].{{sfn|Lewis|2003|p=112}} Applewhite and Nettles had about 40&nbsp;followers then and lived in two or three houses; the leaders usually had their own house.{{sfn|Bearak|1997}} The group was secretive about their lifestyle, covering their windows.{{sfn|Lewis|2003|p=112}} Applewhite and Nettles arranged their followers' lifestyles as a [[Recruit training|boot camp]] that would prepare them for the Next Level. Referring to their house as a "craft", they regimented the lives of their disciples down to the minute.{{sfn|Balch|Taylor|2002|p=216}} Students who were not committed to this lifestyle were encouraged to leave; departing members were given financial assistance.{{sfn|Balch|Taylor|2002|p=216}} Lifton states that Applewhite wanted "quality over quantity" in his followers, although he occasionally spoke about gaining many converts.{{sfn|Lifton|2000|pp=309 & 320}}

Applewhite and Nettles sometimes made sudden, drastic changes to the group.{{sfn|Chryssides|2004|p=365}} On one occasion in Texas, they told their followers of a forthcoming visitation from extraterrestrials and instructed them to wait outside all night, at which point they informed them that this had been merely a test.{{sfn|Balch|Taylor|2002|pp=216–7}} Lalich sees this as a way that they increased their students' devotion, ensuring that their commitment became irrespective of what they saw.{{sfn|Lalich, ''Bounded Choice''|2004|p=90}} Members became desperate for Applewhite's approval, which he used to control them.{{sfn|Lifton|2000|pp=308–9}}

In 1980, Applewhite and Nettles had about 80&nbsp;followers,{{sfn|Zeller|2006|p=91}} many of whom held jobs, often working with computers or as car mechanics.{{sfn|Chryssides|2004|p=358}} In 1982, the pair allowed their disciples to call their families.{{sfn|Balch|Taylor|2002|p=217}} They further relaxed their control in 1983, permitting their followers to visit relatives on [[Mother's Day (United States)|Mother's Day]].{{sfn|Lewis|2003|p=112}} They were only allowed short stays and were instructed to tell their families that they were studying computers at a [[monastery]]. These vacations were intended to placate families by demonstrating that the disciples remained with the group of their own accord.{{sfn|Balch|Taylor|2002|p=217}}

==Nettles' death==
In 1983, Nettles had an eye surgically removed as a result of cancer diagnosed several years earlier. While she lived for two more years, dying in 1985, Applewhite told their followers that she had "traveled to the Next Level" because she had "too much energy to remain on Earth", abandoning her body to make the journey.{{sfn|Chryssides|2004|p=358}}{{sfn|Balch|Taylor|2002|p=217}} His attempt to explain her death in the terms of the group's doctrine was successful, preventing the departure of all but one member. However, Applewhite became very depressed.{{sfn|Balch|Taylor|2002|p=217}} He claimed that Nettles still communicated with him, but he suffered from a crisis of faith. His students supported him during this time, greatly encouraging him.{{sfn|Balch|Taylor|2002|p=218}} He then organized a ceremony in which he symbolically married his followers; Lalich views this as an attempt to ensure unity.{{sfn|Lalich, ''Bounded Choice''|2004|p=92}} Applewhite told his followers that he had been left behind by Nettles because he still had more to learn—he felt that she occupied "a higher spiritual role" than he did.{{sfn|Lalich, ''Bounded Choice''|2004|p=92}}{{sfn|Balch|Taylor|2002|p=214}} He began identifying her as "the Father" and often referred to her with [[Gender-specific and gender-neutral pronouns|male pronouns]].{{sfn|Partridge|2006|p=62}}{{sfn|Lalich, ''Bounded Choice''|2004|p=78}}

Applewhite began to emphasize a strict hierarchy, teaching that his students needed his guidance, as he needed the guidance of the Next Level. Zeller notes that this naturally ensured no possibility of the group's continuing if Applewhite were to die.{{sfn|Zeller|2006|p=88}} A relationship with Applewhite was said to be the only way to salvation;{{sfn|Partridge|2006|p=56}} he encouraged his followers to see him as Christ.{{sfn|Partridge|2006|p=62}} Zeller states that the group's previous focus on individual choice was replaced with an emphasis on Applewhite's role as a mediator.{{sfn|Zeller|2006|p=88}} Applewhite maintained some aspects of their scientific teachings, but in the 1980s the group became more like a religion in its focus on faith and submission to authority.{{sfn|Zeller, ''Prophets and Protons''|2010|p=138}}

After Nettles' death, Applewhite also altered his view of ascension; previously, he had taught that the group would physically ascend from the Earth and that death caused reincarnation, but her death—which left behind an unchanged, corporeal body—forced him to say that the ascension could be spiritual.{{sfnm|1a1=Lewis|1y=2003|1p=113|2a1=Balch|2a2=Taylor|2y=2002|2p=209}} He then concluded that her spirit had traveled to a spaceship and received a new body and that his followers and he would do the same.{{sfn|Lewis|2003|p=113}} In his view, the Biblical heaven was actually a planet on which highly evolved beings dwelt, and physical bodies were required to ascend there.{{sfnm|1a1=Balch|1a2=Taylor|1y=2002|1p=209|2a1=Zeller, "Extraterrestrial Biblical Hermeneutics"|2y=2010|2p=44}} Applewhite believed that once they reached the Next Level, they would facilitate evolution on other planets.{{sfn|Wessinger|2000|p=233}} He emphasized that Jesus, whom he believed was an extraterrestrial, came to Earth, was killed, and bodily rose from the dead before being transported onto a spaceship.{{sfn|Lewis|2003|p=106}}{{sfn|Zeller, ''Prophets and Protons''|2010|p=126}} According to Applewhite's doctrine, Jesus was a gateway to heaven, but had found humanity unready to ascend when he first came to the Earth.{{sfnm|Raine|2005|1p=106|Woodward|1997}} Applewhite then decided that an opportunity existed for humans to reach the Next Level "every two millennia", and the early 1990s would therefore provide the first opportunity to reach the Kingdom of Heaven since the time of Jesus.{{sfn|Chryssides|2004|p=363}} Zeller notes that his beliefs were based on the Christian Bible, but were interpreted through the lens of belief in alien contact with humanity.{{sfn|Zeller, "Extraterrestrial Biblical Hermeneutics"|2010|p=35}}

Applewhite taught that he was a [[Walk-in (concept)|walk-in]], a concept that had gained popularity in the New Age movement during the late 1970s. Walk-ins were said to be higher beings who took control of adult bodies to teach humanity. This concept informed Applewhite's view of resurrection; he believed that his group's souls were to be transported to a spaceship, where they would enter other bodies.{{sfn|Lewis|2003|pp=114–6}} Applewhite abandoned the metaphor of a butterfly in favor of describing the body as a mere container,{{sfn|Raine|2005|p=107}} a vehicle that souls could enter and exit.{{sfn|Zeller, ''Prophets and Protons''|2010|p=141}} This dualism may have been the product of the Christology that Applewhite learned as a young man;{{sfn|Partridge|2006|p=59}} Lewis writes that the group's teachings had "Christian elements [that] were basically grafted on to a New Age matrix".{{sfn|Lewis|2003|p=106}} In a profile of the group for ''[[Newsweek]]'', Kenneth Woodward compares his dualism to that of ancient [[Christian Gnosticism]], although Peters notes that his theology departs from Gnosticism by privileging the physical world.{{sfnm|Peters|2003|1p=247|Woodward|1997}}

In the wake of Nettles' death, Applewhite became increasingly paranoid, fearing a conspiracy against his group.{{sfn|Balch|Taylor|2002|p=226}} One member who joined in the mid-1980s recalled that Applewhite avoided new converts, worrying that they were infiltrators.{{sfn|Miller|1997}} He feared a government raid on their home and spoke highly of the Jewish defenders of [[Masada]] in ancient Israel who showed total resistance to the [[Roman Empire]].{{sfn|Zeller|2011|p=186}} Increasingly, he began to discuss the Apocalypse,{{sfn|Zeller|2006|pp=85–6}} comparing the Earth to an overgrown garden that was to be recycled or [[Reboot (computing)|rebooted]] and humanity to a failed experiment.{{sfnm|Chryssides|2004|1pp=358 & 366|Grünschloß|2003|2p=28}} In accordance with the garden metaphor, he stated that the Earth would be "spaded under".{{sfn|Goerman|2011|p=61}} Woodward notes that Applewhite's teaching about the Earth's recycling is similar to the cyclical perspective of time found in [[Buddhism]].{{sfn|Woodward|1997}} Applewhite also used New Age concepts,{{sfn|Lewis|2003|p=106}} but he differed from that movement by predicting that apocalyptic, rather than utopian, changes would soon occur on Earth.{{sfn|Lewis|2003|p=118}} He contended that most humans had been brainwashed by [[Lucifer]] but that his followers could break free of this control.{{sfnm|Raine|2005|1p=114|Davis|2000|2p=244}} He specifically cited sexual urges as the work of Lucifer.{{sfn|Raine|2005|p=108}} In addition, he stated that evil extraterrestrials, whom he referred to as "Luciferians", sought to thwart his mission.{{sfn|Lewis|2003|p=112}} He argued that many prominent moral teachers and advocates of [[political correctness]] were actually Luciferians.{{sfn|Davis|2000|p=250}} This theme emerged in 1988, possibly in response to the lurid [[alien abduction]] stories that were proliferating at the time.{{sfn|Balch|Taylor|2002|p=218}}

==Obscurity and evangelism==
In the late 1980s, the group kept a low profile; few people knew it still existed.{{sfn|Balch|Taylor|2002|p=218}} In 1988, they mailed a document that detailed their beliefs to a variety of New Age organizations.{{sfn|Balch|Taylor|2002|p=219}} The mailing contained information about their history and advised people to read several books, which primarily focused on Christian history and UFOs.{{sfn|Zeller, ''Prophets and Protons''|2010|p=143}}{{sfn|Lalich, ''Bounded Choice''|2004|p=102}} With the exception of the 1988 document, Applewhite's group remained inconspicuous until 1992,{{sfnm|Zeller, "Extraterrestrial Biblical Hermeneutics"|2010|1p=41|Chryssides|2004|2p=358}} when they recorded a 12-part video series which was broadcast via satellite.{{sfnm|1a1=Zeller|1y=2006|1p=89|2a1=Balch|2a2=Taylor|2y=2002|2p=219}}{{sfn|Zeller, ''Prophets and Protons''|2010|p=149}} This series echoed many of the teachings of the 1988 update, although it introduced a "universal mind" of which its hearers could partake.{{sfn|Zeller, ''Prophets and Protons''|2010|p=150}}{{sfn|Peters|2003|p=247}}

Over the course of the group's existence, several hundred people joined and left.{{sfn|Lalich, ''Bounded Choice''|2004|p=42}} In the early 1990s, their membership dwindled, numbering as few as 26;{{sfn|Balch|Taylor|2002|p=220}} these defections gave Applewhite a sense of urgency.{{sfn|Balch|Taylor|2002|p=219}} In May 1993, the group took the name "Total Overcomers Anonymous". They then spent $30,000 to publish a full-page advertisement in ''[[USA Today]]'' that warned of catastrophic judgment to befall the Earth.{{sfn|''The San Diego Union-Tribune'', "Heaven's Gate: A Timeline"|1997}}{{sfnm|Chryssides|2004|1p=358|2a1=Balch|2a2=Taylor|2y=2002|2p=219}} Its publication led about 20&nbsp;former members to rejoin the group.{{sfn|Chryssides|2004|p=358}} This, along with a series of public lectures in 1994, caused membership to double from its nadir at the beginning of the decade.{{sfn|Balch|Taylor|2002|p=220}} By this time, Applewhite did not regiment his disciples' lives as strictly as he had and spent less time with them.{{sfn|Miller|1997}}{{sfn|Lalich, ''Bounded Choice''|2004|p=95}}

In the early 1990s, Applewhite posted some of his teachings on the Internet, but he was stung by the resulting criticism.{{sfn|Davis|2000|p=260}} That year, he first spoke of the possibility of suicide as a way to reach the Next Level.{{sfn|Wessinger|2000|p=238}} He explained that everything "human" had to be forsaken, including the human body, before one could ascend.{{sfn|Zeller|2006|p=87}} The organization was then renamed Heaven's Gate.{{sfn|Raine|2005|p=113}} Davis speculates that this rejection may have encouraged him to attempt to leave Earth.{{sfn|Davis|2000|p=260}}

From June to October 1995, the group lived in a rural part of New Mexico.{{sfn|''The San Diego Union-Tribune'', "Heaven's Gate: A Timeline"|1997}}{{sfn|Raine|2005|p=113}} They purchased {{convert|40|acre|ha|abbr=off}} and built a compound—which they referred to as the "Earth ship"—using tires and lumber;{{sfnm|Urban|2000|1p=276|Raine|2005|2p=113}} Applewhite hoped to establish a monastery.{{sfn|Balch|Taylor|2002|p=220}} This proved to be a difficult endeavor, particularly for the aging Applewhite:{{sfn|Raine|2005|p=113}} he was in poor health and, at one point, feared that he had cancer.{{sfn|Balch|Taylor|2002|p=221}} Lifton notes that Applewhite's active leadership of the group probably led to severe fatigue in his last years.{{sfn|Lifton|2000|p=311}} The winter was very cold, and they abandoned the plan.{{sfn|Balch|Taylor|2002|p=220}} Afterwards, they lived in several houses in the [[San Diego]] area.{{sfn|''The San Diego Union-Tribune'', "Heaven's Gate: A Timeline"|1997}}

The group increasingly focused on the suppression of sexual desire; Applewhite and seven others opted for [[surgical castration]].{{sfn|Chryssides|2004|p=358}} They initially had difficulty finding a willing surgeon, but eventually found one in [[Mexico]].{{sfnm|Lifton|2000|p=305|Jones|2007}} In Applewhite's view, sexuality was one of the most powerful forces that bound humans to their bodies and thus hindered their efforts to evolve to the Next Level; he taught that Next Level beings had no [[reproductive organs]], but that Luciferian beings had [[gender]]s.{{sfnm|Urban|2000|1p=286|Grünschloß|2003|2p=26}}{{sfn|Zeller, ''Prophets and Protons''|2010|p=145}} He also cited a verse in the New Testament that said there would not be marriage in heaven.{{sfn|Wessinger|2000|p=239}}{{efn|name=angels}} In addition, he required members to adopt similar clothing and haircuts, possibly to reinforce that they were a nonsexual family.{{sfn|Raine|2005|pp=109–10}}

==Mass suicide==
[[File:Comet Hale-Bopp Death Valley.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Comet Hale–Bopp]] over California in April 1997]]
In October 1996, the group rented a mansion in [[Rancho Santa Fe, California]].{{sfn|''The San Diego Union-Tribune'', "Heaven's Gate: A Timeline"|1997}}{{sfn|Chryssides|2004|p=358}} That year, they recorded two video messages in which they offered their viewers a "last chance to evacuate Earth".{{sfn|Zeller|2006|p=86}} Around the same time, they learned of the approach of Comet Hale–Bopp.{{sfn|Chryssides|2004|p=358}} Applewhite now believed that Nettles was aboard a spaceship trailing the comet, and that she planned to rendezvous with them.{{sfn|Partridge|2006|p=60}} He told his followers that the vessel would transport them to an [[empyrean]] destination, and that a government conspiracy was attempting to suppress word of the craft.{{sfnm|1a1=Balch|1a2=Taylor|1y=2002|1p=209|2a1=Zeller|2y=2011|2p=177}} In addition, he stated that his deceased followers would be taken by the vessel, as well, a belief that resembled the Christian [[pretribulation rapture]] doctrine.{{sfn|Partridge|2006|p=61}} How he learned of the comet or why he believed that it was accompanied by extraterrestrials or why he should have believed the dead Nettles would be with them is not known.{{sfn|Lewis|2003|p=112}}{{efn|name=art}}

In late March 1997, the group isolated themselves and recorded farewell statements.{{sfn|Chryssides|2004|p=359}} Many members praised Applewhite in their final messages;{{sfn|Lalich, ''Bounded Choice''|2004|p=98}} Davis describes their remarks as "regurgitations of Do's gospel".{{sfn|Davis|2000|p=243}} Applewhite recorded a video shortly before his death, in which he termed the suicides the "final exit" of the group and remarked, "We do in all honesty [[Contemptus mundi|hate this world]]".{{sfnm|Urban|2000|1p=279|Partridge|2006|2p=55}} Lewis speculates that Applewhite settled on suicide because he had said that the group would ascend during his lifetime, so appointing a successor was unfeasible.{{sfn|Lewis|2003|p=113}}

Religious scholar [[Catherine Wessinger]] posits that the suicides began on March&nbsp;22.{{sfn|Wessinger|2000|p=230}} Most members took [[barbiturate]]s and alcohol and then placed bags over their heads. They wore [[Nike, Inc.|Nike]] shoes and black uniforms with patches that read "Heaven's Gate Away Team".{{sfnm|1a1=Balch|1a2=Taylor|1y=2002|1p=209|Lalich, ''Bounded Choice''|2004|2p=27}} A bag that contained a few dollars and a form of identification was placed beside most bodies.{{sfn|Lalich, ''Bounded Choice''|2004|p=27}} The deaths occurred over three days; Applewhite was one of the last four to die. Three assistants helped him commit suicide, then killed themselves.{{sfn|Balch|Taylor|2002|p=224}} An anonymous tip led the [[San Diego County Sheriff's Department]] to search the mansion;{{sfn|Lalich, ''Bounded Choice''|2004|p=28}} they found 39 bodies there on March&nbsp;26.{{sfnm|Lewis|2003|p=103|Associated Press, March 28, 1997}} It was the largest group suicide involving U.S. citizens since the 1978 mass suicide of 913 Americans in [[Jonestown]], [[Guyana]].{{sfnm|Wessinger|2000|1p=229|Daniels|1999|2p=204}} Applewhite's body was found seated on the bed of the mansion's master bedroom.{{sfn|Jones|2007}} [[Medical examiner]]s determined that his fears of cancer had been unfounded, but that he suffered from [[coronary atherosclerosis]].{{sfn|Lifton|2000|p=311}}

The deaths provoked a [[media circus]],{{sfn|Lalich, ''Bounded Choice''|2004|p=30}} and Applewhite's face was featured on the covers of ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' and ''Newsweek'' on April&nbsp;7.{{sfn|McCutcheon|2003|pp=104–5}} His final message was widely broadcast; Hugh Urban of [[Ohio State University]] described his appearance in the video as "wild-eyed [and] rather alarming".{{sfn|Urban|2000|p=275}}

==Analysis==
Although many popular commentators, including psychologist [[Margaret Singer]],{{sfn|Monmaney|1997}} speculate that Applewhite brainwashed his followers, many academics have rejected the "brainwashing" label as an oversimplification that does not express the nuances of the process by which the followers were influenced.{{sfn|Davis|2000|p=241}} Lalich speculates that they were willing to follow Applewhite in suicide because they had become totally dependent upon him, hence were poorly suited for life in his absence.{{sfn|Lalich, "Using the Bounded Choice Model"|2004|pp=237–9}} Davis attributes Applewhite's success in convincing his followers to commit suicide to two factors: He isolated them socially and cultivated an attitude of complete religious obedience in them.{{sfn|Davis|2000|p=242}} Applewhite's students had made a long-term commitment to him, and Balch and Taylor infer that this is why his interpretations of events appeared coherent to them.{{sfn|Balch|Taylor|2002|p=227}} Most of the dead had been members for about 20&nbsp;years,{{sfn|Lalich, ''Bounded Choice''|2004|p=28}} although there were a few recent converts.{{sfn|Lalich, ''Bounded Choice''|2004|p=42}}

Lewis argues that Applewhite effectively controlled his followers by packaging his teachings in familiar terms.{{sfn|Lewis|2003|p=126}} Richard Hecht of the [[University of California, Santa Barbara]], echoes this sentiment, arguing that members of the group killed themselves because they believed the narrative that he had constructed, rather than because he psychologically controlled them.{{sfn|Monmaney|1997}} In his 2000 study of apocalyptic movements, John R. Hall posits that they were motivated to commit suicide because they saw it as a way to demonstrate that they had conquered the fear of death and truly believed Applewhite.{{sfn|Hall|2000|p=181}}

Urban writes that Applewhite's life displays "the intense ambivalence and alienation shared by many individuals lost in late 20th-century capitalist society".{{sfn|Urban|2000|p=270}} He notes that Applewhite's condemnations of contemporary culture bear similarities to those of [[Jean Baudrillard]] at times, particularly their shared nihilist views.{{sfn|Urban|2000|pp=291–2}} Urban posits that Applewhite found no way other than suicide to escape the society that surrounded him and states that death offered him a way to escape its "endless circle of seduction and consumption".{{sfn|Urban|2000|p=271}}

While covering the suicides, several media outlets focused on Applewhite's sexuality;{{sfn|Dahir|1997|pp=35–7}} the ''[[New York Post]]'' dubbed him "the Gay Guru".{{sfn|Lippert|1997|p=31}} Gay rights activist [[Troy Perry]] argued that Applewhite's repression, and society's rejection, of same-sex relationships ultimately led to his suicide. This idea has failed to gain support among academics.{{sfn|Dahir|1997|pp=35–7}} Zeller argues that Applewhite's sexuality was not the primary driving force behind his asceticism, which he believes resulted from a variety of factors, though he grants sexuality a role.{{sfn|Zeller, ''Prophets and Protons''|2010|p=122}}

Lalich states that Applewhite fit "the traditional view of a charismatic leader",{{sfn|Lalich, ''Bounded Choice''|2004|p=43}} and [[Evan Thomas]] deems him a "master manipulator".{{sfn|Goerman|2011|p=58}} Lifton compares Applewhite to [[Shoko Asahara]], the founder of [[Aum Shinrikyo]], describing him as "equally controlling, his paranoia and megalomania gentler yet ever present".{{sfn|Lifton|2000|p=306}} [[Christopher Partridge]] of [[Lancaster University]] states that Applewhite and Nettles were similar to [[John Reeve (religious leader)|John Reeve]] and [[Lodowicke Muggleton]], who founded [[Muggletonianism]], a millennialist movement in 17th century England.{{sfn|Partridge|2006|p=50}}

==See also==
*[[Jim Jones]], leader of the religious cult [[Peoples Temple]], who also initiated a mass suicide among his followers
*[[Messiah complex]]

==Notes==
{{notes
| colwidth =
| notes =

{{efn
| name = dough
| The name "Do" was pronounced {{IPAc-en|d|oʊ}}. {{harv|Lalich, ''Bounded Choice''|2004|p=25}}
}}

{{efn
| name = angels
| {{Bibleverse||Matthew|22:30|KJV}}: "For in the resurrection they neither marry, nor are given in marriage, but are as the angels of God in heaven." (KJV)
}}

{{efn
| name = rev11
| {{Bibleverse||Revelation|11:7–12|KJV}}: "And when they shall have finished their testimony, the beast that ascendeth out of the bottomless pit shall make war against them, and shall overcome them, and kill them. And their dead bodies shall lie in the street of the great city, which spiritually is called Sodom and Egypt, where also our Lord was crucified. And they of the people and kindreds and tongues and nations shall see their dead bodies three days and an half, and shall not suffer their dead bodies to be put in graves. And they that dwell upon the earth shall rejoice over them, and make merry, and shall send gifts one to another; because these two prophets tormented them that dwelt on the earth. And after three days and an half the spirit of life from God entered into them, and they stood upon their feet; and great fear fell upon them which saw them. And they heard a great voice from heaven saying unto them, Come up hither. And they ascended up to heaven in a cloud; and their enemies beheld them." ([[King James Version|KJV]])
}}

{{efn
| name = name
| Other names used by Applewhite include "Guinea", "Tiddly", and "Nincom". {{harv|Urban|2000|p=276}} Occasionally, he was simply referred to by male pronouns. {{harv|Peters|2003|p=249}}
}}

{{efn
| name = meetcute
| The circumstances of Applewhite's introduction to Nettles are unclear: their meeting has been variously attributed to his seeking of treatment at a hospital, {{harv|Lewis|2003|p=111}} visitation of a friend receiving treatment, {{harv|Zeller|2006|p=77}} or teaching of Nettles' son. {{harv|Bearak|1997}} Applewhite recorded few details about their meeting. {{harv|Daniels|1999|p=206}}
}}

{{efn
| name = art
| In late 1996, rumors of images that showed a mysterious object following the comet spread on the internet. [[Whitley Strieber]], [[Courtney Brown (researcher)|Courtney Brown]], and [[Art Bell]] helped popularize these reports, claiming that the object was emitting radio signals. {{harv|Daniels|1999|pp=200–2}}
}}
}}

==References==
{{reflist|20em}}

==Bibliography==
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{{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
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*{{cite book
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*{{cite book
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*{{cite book 
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*{{cite book
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*{{cite book
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*{{cite book 
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*{{cite book
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*{{cite book
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*{{cite book
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*{{cite book
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*{{cite book
 |last=Lifton
 |first=Robert Jay
 |author-link=Robert Jay Lifton
 |title=Destroying the World to Save it: Aum Shinrikyō, Apocalyptic Violence, and the New Global Terrorism
 |year=2000
 |publisher=Macmillan Publishers
 |isbn=978-0-8050-6511-4}}
*{{cite book
 |last=Partridge |first=Christopher |author-link=Christopher Partridge
 |editor-last=Newport |editor-first=Kenneth G. C.
 |editor-last2=Gribben |editor-first2=Crawford
 |title=Expecting the End: Millennialism in Social And Historical Context
 |year=2006
 |publisher=Baylor University Press
 |chapter=The Eschatology of Heaven's Gate
 |isbn=978-1-932792-38-6}}
*{{cite book
 |editor-last=Partridge |editor-first=Christopher |editor-link=Christopher Partridge
 |title= UFO Religions
 |date=2003
 |publisher=Routledge
 |isbn=978-0-4152-6324-5
 |ol=7489025M}}
*{{cite book
 |last=Peters
 |first=Ted
 |editor=James R. Lewis
 |title=Encyclopedic Sourcebook of UFO Religions
 |year=2003
 |publisher=Prometheus Books
 |isbn=978-1-57392-964-6
 |chapter=UFOs, Heaven's Gate, and the Theology of Suicide}}
*{{cite book 
 |last=Wessinger 
 |first=Catherine 
 |author-link=Catherine Wessinger 
 |title=How the Millennium Comes Violently: From Jonestown to Heaven's Gate 
 |title-link=How the Millennium Comes Violently 
 |date=2000 
 |publisher=Seven Bridges Press 
 |isbn=978-1-889119-24-3 
 |language=en}}
*{{cite book
 |last=Zeller
 |first=Benjamin E.
 |author-link=Benjamin E. Zeller 
 |title=Prophets and Protons: New Religious Movements and Science in Late Twentieth-Century America
 |year=2010
 |publisher=NYU Press
 |isbn=978-0-8147-9720-4
 |ref={{sfnRef|Zeller, ''Prophets and Protons''|2010}}}}
*{{cite book
 |last=Zeller
 |first=Benjamin E.
 |author-link=Benjamin E. Zeller 
 |editor-last=Lewis
 |editor-first=James R.
 |editor-link=James R. Lewis (scholar)
 |title=Violence and New Religious Movements
 |title-link=Violence and New Religious Movements
 |chapter=The Euphemization of Violence: The Case of Heaven's Gate
 |year=2011
 |publisher=Oxford University Press
 |isbn=978-0-19-973563-1}}
{{Refend}}

===Journals===
{{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
*{{cite journal
 |last=Davis
 |first=Winston
 |title=Heaven's Gate: A Study of Religious Obedience
 |journal=[[Nova Religio]]
 |year=2000
 |volume=3
 |issue=2
 |pages=241–267
 |doi=10.1525/nr.2000.3.2.241
 |publisher=University of California Press}}
*{{cite journal
 |last=Feltmate
 |first=David
 |title=New Religious Movements in Animated Adult Sitcoms—A Spectrum of Portrayals
 |journal=Religion Compass
 |year=2011
 |volume=5
 |issue=7
 |pages=343–54
 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons
 |doi=10.1111/j.1749-8171.2011.00287.x
 |ref=none}}
*{{cite journal
 |last=Lalich
 |first=Janja
 |title=Using the Bounded Choice Model as an Analytical Tool: A Case Study of Heaven's Gate
 |journal=[[Cultic Studies Review]]
 |year=2004
 |volume=3
 |issue=3
 |pages=226–247
 |publisher=[[International Cultic Studies Association]]
 |ref={{sfnRef|Lalich, "Using the Bounded Choice Model"|2004}}}}
*{{cite journal
 |last=Raine
 |first=Susan
 |title=Reconceptualising the Human Body: Heaven's Gate and the Quest for Divine Transformation
 |journal=[[Religion (journal)|Religion]]
 |year=2005
 |volume=35
 |issue=2
 |pages=98–117
 |doi=10.1016/j.religion.2005.06.003
 |publisher=Elsevier
 |s2cid=144033418}}
*{{cite journal
 |last=Urban
 |first=Hugh
 |title=The Devil at Heaven's Gate: Rethinking the Study of Religion in the Age of Cyber-Space
 |journal=Nova Religio
 |year=2000
 |volume=3
 |issue=2
 |pages=268–302
 |doi=10.1525/nr.2000.3.2.268
 |publisher=University of California Press
 |url=http://nr.ucpress.edu/content/3/2/268.full.pdf
 |archive-date=July 21, 2018
 |access-date=September 4, 2019
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180721190739/http://nr.ucpress.edu/content/3/2/268.full.pdf
 |url-status=dead
 }}
*{{cite journal
 |last=Zeller
 |first=Benjamin E.
 |author-link=Benjamin E. Zeller 
 |title=Scaling Heaven's Gate: Individualism and Salvation in a New Religious Movement
 |journal=Nova Religio
 |year=2006
 |volume=10
 |issue=2
 |pages=75–102
 |doi=10.1525/nr.2006.10.2.75
 |publisher=University of California Press}}
*{{cite journal
 |last=Zeller
 |first=Benjamin E.
 |author-link=Benjamin E. Zeller 
 |title=Extraterrestrial Biblical Hermeneutics and the Making of Heaven's Gate
 |journal=Nova Religio
 |year=2010
 |volume=14
 |issue=2
 |pages=34–60
 |doi=10.1525/nr.2010.14.2.34
 |publisher=University of California Press
 |ref={{sfnRef|Zeller, "Extraterrestrial Biblical Hermeneutics"|2010}}}}
{{Refend}}

===Magazines===
{{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
*{{cite journal
 |last=Dahir
 |first=Mubarak
 |title=Heaven's Scapegoat
 |journal=[[The Advocate (LGBT magazine)|The Advocate]]
 |date=May 13, 1997
 |pages=35–7
 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M2QEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA35
 |access-date=June 11, 2012}}
*{{cite journal
 |last=Lippert
 |first=Barbara
 |title=Cult Fiction
 |journal=[[New York (magazine)|New York]]
 |date=April 14, 1997
 |pages=30–3
 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e-gCAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA30
 |access-date=June 11, 2012}}
*{{cite journal
 |last=Miller
 |first=Mark
 |title=Secrets Of The Cult
 |journal=[[Newsweek]]
 |date=April 13, 1997
 |url=http://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/1997/04/13/secrets-of-the-cult.html
 |access-date=June 11, 2012
 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130204064755/http://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/1997/04/13/secrets-of-the-cult.html
 |archive-date=February 4, 2013
 |url-status=dead}}
*{{cite journal
 |last=Woodward
 |first=Kenneth
 |title=Christ And Comets
 |journal=Newsweek
 |date=April 6, 1997
 |url=http://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/1997/04/06/christ-and-comets.html
 |access-date=July 11, 2012
 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130203172140/http://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/1997/04/06/christ-and-comets.html
 |archive-date=February 3, 2013
 |url-status=dead}}
{{Refend}}

===Newspapers===
{{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
*{{cite news
 |title=Cult's Founder Turned from Music to UFOs
 |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=WfZJAAAAIBAJ&pg=3096,8762810
 |access-date=June 10, 2012
 |agency=[[Associated Press]]
 |date=March 28, 1997
 |ref={{sfnRef|Associated Press, March 28, 1997}}}}
*{{cite news
 |title=Heaven's Gate: A Timeline 
 |url=http://www.utsandiego.com/uniontrib/20070318/news_lz1n18timelin.html 
 |access-date=June 10, 2012 
 |newspaper=[[The San Diego Union-Tribune]] 
 |date=March 18, 2007 
 |ref={{sfnRef|''The San Diego Union-Tribune'', "Heaven's Gate: A Timeline"|1997}} 
 |url-status=dead 
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121018093208/http://www.utsandiego.com/uniontrib/20070318/news_lz1n18timelin.html 
 |archive-date=October 18, 2012}}
*{{cite news
 |last=Bearak
 |first=Barry
 |title=Eyes on Glory: Pied Pipers of Heaven's Gate
 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1997/04/28/us/eyes-on-glory-pied-pipers-of-heaven-s-gate.html
 |access-date=June 11, 2012
 |newspaper=[[The New York Times]]
 |date=April 28, 1997}}
*{{cite news
 |last=Harris
 |first=Ron
 |title=Mysterious Couple may be the Founders of Suicide Cult
 |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1842&dat=19970328&id=0U8eAAAAIBAJ&pg=4458,3789209
 |access-date=July 10, 2012
 |agency=[[Associated Press]]
 |date=March 28, 1997}}
*{{cite news
 |last=Jones 
 |first=J. Harry 
 |title=Heaven's Gate Revisited 
 |url=http://www.utsandiego.com/uniontrib/20070318/news_lz1n18heaven.html 
 |access-date=June 10, 2012 
 |newspaper=The San Diego Union-Tribune 
 |date=March 18, 2007 
 |url-status=dead 
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140305135754/http://www.utsandiego.com/uniontrib/20070318/news_lz1n18heaven.html 
 |archive-date=March 5, 2014}}
*{{cite news
 |last=Monmaney
 |first=Terence
 |title=Free Will, or Thought Control?
 |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1997-04-04-mn-45358-story.html
 |access-date=June 15, 2012
 |newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]]
 |date=April 4, 1997}}
*{{cite news
 |last=Steinberg
 |first=Jacques
 |title=From Religious Childhood To Reins of a U.F.O. Cult
 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1997/03/29/us/from-religious-childhood-to-reins-of-a-ufo-cult.html
 |access-date=June 11, 2012
 |newspaper=The New York Times
 |date=March 29, 1997}}
{{Refend}}

{{Wikiquote}}
{{Heaven's Gate}}
{{New Religious Movements}}
{{Authority control}}
{{Featured article}}

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