Editing Jehovah's Witnesses

{{Short description|Restorationist Christian denomination}}
{{redirect|JWs|other uses|JW (disambiguation){{!}}JW|and|JWS (disambiguation){{!}}JWS}}
{{Good article}}
{{Pp|small=yes}}
{{Use American English|date=August 2020}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=February 2026}}
{{Infobox Christian denomination
| name               = Jehovah's Witnesses
| image              = JW Logo.svg
| caption            = The logo of the denomination's official website
| imagewidth         = 108px
| main_classification = [[Restorationism|Restorationist]]
| structure          = [[Organizational structure of Jehovah's Witnesses|Hierarchical]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Riggs |first1=Thomas |title=Worldmark Encyclopedia of Religious Practices: Religions and denominations |date=2006 |publisher=[[Thomson Gale]] |isbn=9780787666118 |page=193}}</ref>
| orientation        = [[Premillennialism|Premillennialist]]{{sfn|Chryssides|2008|p=93}}
| scripture          = [[Bible]] ([[Protestant Bible|Protestant canon]])
| theology           = [[Nontrinitarianism|Nontrinitarian]]
| founder            = [[Charles Taze Russell]] (Bible Student movement)<ref name="Gale" /><br />[[Joseph Franklin Rutherford]]<ref>{{harvnb|Rogerson|1969|p=55}}</ref>
| founded_date       = 1870s
| founded_place      = [[Pittsburgh]], Pennsylvania, US
| headquarters       = [[Warwick, New York]], US
| governance         = [[Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses|Governing Body]]
| branched_from      = [[Bible Student movement]], [[Adventism]]{{sfn|Bergman|1995|p=33}}
| separations        = [[Jehovah's Witnesses splinter groups]]
| area               = [[Jehovah's Witnesses by country|Worldwide]]
| congregations      = {{JWStatistics|congregations}} ({{JWStatistics|year}})<ref name="jwstatistics" />
| members            = {{JWStatistics|publishers}} ({{JWStatistics|year}})<ref name="jwstatistics" />
| missionaries       = 4,091 (2021)<ref name="missionaries" />
| publications       = [[Jehovah's Witnesses publications]]
| website            = {{URL|https://jw.org/en/}}
}}
{{Jehovah's Witnesses}}
'''Jehovah's Witnesses''' is a [[nontrinitarian]],{{sfn|Chryssides|2016b|p=429}} [[millenarian]],<ref>{{harvnb|Beckford|1975|pages=118–119, 151, 200–201}}</ref> and [[restorationist]]<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Stark|first1=Rodney|last2=Iannaccone|first2=Laurence R.|author-link1=Rodney Stark|author-link2=Laurence Iannaccone|title=Why the Jehovah's Witnesses Grow so Rapidly: A Theoretical Application|journal=[[Journal of Contemporary Religion]]|date=1997|volume=12|issue=2|pages=133–157|doi=10.1080/13537909708580796|url=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/6295/f3db6a97bbd6909aa18df688e24a8fe945a9.pdf|access-date=December 27, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171228112238/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/6295/f3db6a97bbd6909aa18df688e24a8fe945a9.pdf|archive-date=December 28, 2017|url-status=dead |issn = 1353-7903}}</ref> [[Christian denomination]],<ref>See following:
* {{cite web|title=Who is a Christian?|url=http://www.religioustolerance.org/chr_defn.htm|website=www.religioustolerance.org|publisher=[[Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance]]|access-date=December 27, 2017|archive-date=May 11, 2000|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000511015547/http://www.religioustolerance.org/chr_defn.htm|url-status=usurped}}
* {{cite web|title=Religious Landscape Study|url=http://www.pewforum.org/religious-landscape-study|website=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project|publisher=[[Pew Research Center]]|access-date=December 27, 2017|date=May 11, 2015}}
* {{cite book|title=World Almanac and Book of Facts|publisher=Infobase Learning|location=New York, NY|year=2011|isbn=978-1-60057-133-6|pages=[https://archive.org/details/worldalmanacbook01newy/page/704 704–705]|url=https://archive.org/details/worldalmanacbook01newy/page/704}}
* {{cite news|title=Jehovah's Witnesses at a glance|work=[[BBC]]|date=September 29, 2009|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/witnesses/ataglance/glance.shtml|access-date=December 27, 2017}}
* {{cite web|title=Jehovah's Witness|website=TheFreeDictionary.com|publisher=[[The American Heritage Dictionary]]|url=http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Jehovah's+Witness|access-date=December 27, 2017}}
* {{cite web|title=Imprisoned for Their Faith: Jehovah's Witnesses in Auschwitz|website=auschwitz.org|publisher=[[Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum]]|url=http://auschwitz.org/en/museum/news/imprisoned-for-their-faith-jehovahs-witnesses-in-auschwitz,351.html|access-date=December 27, 2017|date=February 5, 2004}}</ref>{{sfn|Chu|Peltonen|2025}} stemming from the [[Bible Student movement]] founded by [[Charles Taze Russell]] in the nineteenth century. Russell co-founded [[Zion's Watch Tower Tract Society]] in 1881 to organize and print the movement's publications.<ref name="Gale">{{cite encyclopedia|editor=Stanley I. Kutler|editor-link=Stanley Kutler|title=Jehovah's Witnesses|year=2003 |encyclopedia=Dictionary of American History|edition=3rd |url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/christianity/protestant-denominations/jehovahs-witnesses#1G23401802183 |publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons|location=New York|isbn=978-0-684-80533-7}}</ref> [[Watch Tower Society presidency dispute (1917)|A leadership dispute]] after Russell's death resulted in several groups breaking away, with [[Joseph Franklin Rutherford]] retaining control of the Watch Tower Society and its properties.<ref>{{cite journal |year=1972 |editor-last=Hill |editor-first=Michael |title=The Embryonic State of a Religious Sect's Development: The Jehovah's Witnesses |journal=Sociological Yearbook of Religion in Britain |issue=5 |pages=11–12}}</ref> Rutherford made significant organizational and doctrinal changes,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Chall |first=Leo P. |year=1978 |title=Sociological Abstracts |journal=Sociology of Religion |volume=26 |issue=1–3 |page=193}}</ref> including adoption of the name ''Jehovah's witnesses''<ref group=en>Prior to the April 1, 1975, issue of ''The Watchtower'', "witnesses" was consistently uncapitalized in Watch Tower Society literature (with the exception of title case headings) when referring to the denomination.</ref> in 1931 to distinguish the group from other Bible Student groups and symbolize a break with the legacy of [[Charles Taze Russell#Theology and teachings|Russell's traditions]].<ref name="Rogerson 1969 55"/><ref name="Beckford 1975 30"/> In {{JWStatistics|year}}, Jehovah's Witnesses reported a peak membership of approximately {{JWStatistics|peak|approx}} worldwide.

Jehovah's Witnesses are known for their [[evangelism]], distributing literature such as ''[[The Watchtower]]'' and ''[[Awake!]]'', and for [[Conscientious objector|refusing military service]] and [[Jehovah's Witnesses and blood transfusions|blood transfusion]]s. They consider the use of [[Names of God in Christianity|God's name]] vital for proper worship. They reject [[Trinity|Trinitarianism]], [[Christian conditionalism|inherent immortality]] of the [[Soul (spirit)|soul]], and [[Hell in Christianity|hell]], which they consider unscriptural doctrines. Jehovah's Witnesses believe that the destruction of the present world system at [[Armageddon]] is imminent, and the establishment of [[Kingship and kingdom of God|God's kingdom]] over earth is the only solution to all of humanity's problems.<ref>{{cite book |title=Britannica Concise Encyclopedia|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.|year=2007|chapter=Jehovah's Witness|isbn=978-1-59339-293-2}}</ref> They do not observe [[Christmas]], [[Easter]], [[birthday]]s, or other holidays and customs they consider to have [[Paganism|pagan]] origins incompatible with Christianity.{{sfn|Franz|2007|pages=274–275}} They prefer to use their own [[Bible translation]], the ''[[New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures]]''.<ref>{{cite book|first=Linda|last=Edwards|isbn=978-0-664-22259-8 |location=Louisville, Kentucky|page=438 |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|title=A Brief Guide to Beliefs |url=https://archive.org/details/unset0000unse_s5t3/page/438 |year=2001}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Chryssides|2008|page=100}}.</ref> 

Jehovah's Witnesses consider human society morally corrupt and under the influence of [[Satan]], and most limit their social interaction with non-Witnesses.<ref>{{harvnb|Penton|1997|page=280–283}}.</ref> The denomination is directed by a group known as the [[Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses]], which establishes all [[doctrine]]s.<ref>{{harvnb|Beckford|1975|page=221}}: "Doctrine has always emanated from the Society's elite in Brooklyn and has never emerged from discussion among, or suggestion from, rank-and-file Witnesses."</ref>{{sfn|Penton|1997|pages=58, 61–62}} [[Jehovah's Witnesses congregational discipline|Congregational disciplinary actions]] include formal expulsion and [[shunning]], for what they consider serious offenses.<ref>{{cite book|first=George D.|last=Chryssides|author-link=George Chryssides|year=1999|isbn=978-0-8264-5959-6|location=London|page=5|publisher=Continuum|title=Exploring New Religions}}</ref>{{sfn|Chryssides|2016a|pages=139–140}} Members who formally leave are considered to be ''disassociated'' and are also shunned.{{sfn|Knox|2018|page=181}} Some members who leave voluntarily successfully "fade" without being shunned. Former members may experience significant mental distress as a result of being shunned,<ref name="Ransom">{{cite journal |last1=Ransom |first1=Heather |last2=Monk |first2=Rebecca |last3=Heim |first3=Derek |title=Grieving the Living: The Social Death of Former Jehovah's Witnesses |journal=Journal of Religion and Health |date=2021 |volume=61 |issue=3 |pages=2458–2480|doi=10.1007/s10943-020-01156-8 |pmid=33469793 |pmc=9142413 }}</ref> and some seek reinstatement to maintain contact with their friends and family.<ref name="Grendele">{{cite journal |last1=Grendele |first1=Windy |last2=Bapir-Tardy |first2=Savin |last3=Flax |first3=Maya |date=2023 |title=Experiencing Religious Shunning: Insights into the Journey From Being a Member to Leaving the Jehovah's Witnesses Community |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11089-023-01074-y |journal=Pastoral Psychology|volume=73 |issue=1 |pages=43–61 |doi=10.1007/s11089-023-01074-y |s2cid=259447164 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

The group's position on conscientious objection to military service and refusal to [[salute]] state symbols—for example, [[national anthem]]s and [[flag]]s—has brought it into conflict with [[Jehovah's Witnesses and governments|several governments]].{{sfn|Knox|2018|pages=3–4}} Jehovah's Witnesses have been persecuted, with their activities banned or restricted in some countries. Persistent [[List of Supreme Court cases involving Jehovah's Witnesses|legal challenges by Jehovah's Witnesses]] have influenced legislation related to [[Civil and political rights|civil rights]] in several countries.{{sfn|Botting|1993|pages=1–13}} The organization has [[Criticism of Jehovah's Witnesses|been criticized]] regarding biblical translation, doctrines, and alleged coercion of its members. The Watch Tower Society has made [[Unfulfilled Watch Tower Society predictions|unfulfilled predictions]] about major biblical events, such as Jesus' [[Second Coming]], the advent of God's kingdom, and Armageddon. Their policies for [[Jehovah's Witnesses' handling of child sex abuse|handling cases of child sexual abuse]] have been the subject of various formal inquiries.

==Demographics==
{{Main|Demographics of Jehovah's Witnesses}}

Jehovah's Witnesses have an active presence in most countries. In {{JWStatistics|year}}, Jehovah's Witnesses reported approximately {{JWStatistics|publishers|approx}} ''publishers''—the term they use for members actively involved in preaching—in about {{JWStatistics|congregations|approx}} congregations.<ref name="jwstatistics">{{cite web|date={{JWStatistics|year}}|title={{JWStatistics|year}} Grand Totals|website= |url=https://www.jw.org/en/library/books/{{JWStatistics|year}}-Service-Year-Report-of-Jehovahs-Witnesses-Worldwide/{{JWStatistics|year}}-Grand-Totals//|access-date=January 9, 2024 |publisher=Watchtower Bible and Tract Society}}</ref> In the same year, they conducted Bible studies with {{JWStatistics|studies}} individuals (including those conducted by Witness parents with their children<ref>{{cite magazine |date=November 1, 2003|magazine=Our Kingdom Ministry|page=3|publisher=Watch Tower Society|title=Question Box|url=https://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/202003406}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|date=September 1, 2008|magazine=Our Kingdom Ministry|page=3|title=Question Box-May both parents report the time used for the regular family study?|url=https://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/202008324}}</ref>). 4,091 members served as missionaries in 2021.<ref name="missionaries">{{Cite web |date=June 1, 2021 |title=Missionaries "to the Most Distant Part of the Earth" |url=https://www.jw.org/en/library/series/how-your-donations-are-used/Missionaries-to-the-Most-Distant-Part-of-the-Earth/ |access-date=March 22, 2024 |website=jw.org |quote=Currently, there are 3,090 field missionaries worldwide. These missionaries are assigned to congregations where there is a need in the preaching work. Another 1,001 field missionaries serve in the circuit work.}}</ref> In {{JWStatistics|year}}, Jehovah's Witnesses reported a worldwide annual increase of {{JWStatistics|increase}}. {{JWStatistics|memorial}} people attended the annual memorial of Christ's death.<ref name="jwstatistics" /> The official published membership statistics, such as those above, include only those who submit reports for their personal ministry.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jw-media.org/aboutjw/article41.htm|title=Jehovah's Witnesses Official Media Web Site: Our History and Organization: Membership|publisher=Office of Public Information of Jehovah's Witnesses|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121204211516/http://www.jw-media.org/aboutjw/article41.htm#membership|archive-date=December 4, 2012}}</ref> As a result, only about half of those who self-identify as Jehovah's Witnesses in independent demographic studies are considered ''active'' by the faith itself.<ref>{{cite report|date=February 1, 2008|pages=9, 30|publisher=Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life|title=U.S. Religious Landscape Survey Religious Affiliation: Diverse and Dynamic}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Groups – Religious Profiles &#124; US Religion |url=https://www.thearda.com/us-religion/group-profiles/groups |website=www.thearda.com}}</ref> Research regarding the demographics of Jehovah's Witnesses is incredibly limited; [[sample size]]s tend to be small and focused to a specific region. Cross-cultural studies are "virtually non-existent".{{sfn|Chu|Peltonen|2025}}

The 2008 US [[Pew Research Center|Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life]] survey found a low retention rate among members of the denomination: about 37% of people raised in the group continued to identify as Jehovah's Witnesses.<ref>{{cite web|first=David|last=Van Biema|date=February 25, 2008|title=America's Unfaithful Faithful|url=http://content.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1716987,00.html|via=content.time.com|access-date=July 30, 2019|archive-date=February 21, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200221171204/http://content.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1716987,00.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|access-date=June 20, 2017|archive-date=April 17, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170417032920/http://www.pewforum.org/files/2013/05/report-religious-landscape-study-full.pdf|title=PEW Forum on Religion and Public Life. U.S. Religious Landscape Survey: Religious Affiliation: Diverse and Dynamic|url-status=dead|url=http://www.pewforum.org/files/2013/05/report-religious-landscape-study-full.pdf}}</ref> The next lowest retention rates were for Buddhism at 50% and Catholicism at 68%. The study also found that 65% of adult American Jehovah's Witnesses are converts.<ref name="pewfact">{{cite web|url=http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/04/26/a-closer-look-at-jehovahs-witnesses-living-in-the-u-s|title=A closer look at Jehovah's Witnesses living in the U.S.|date=April 26, 2016 |publisher=Pew Research Center}}</ref> In 2016, Jehovah's Witnesses had the lowest average household income among surveyed religious groups, with approximately half of Witness households in the United States earning less than $30,000 per year.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Masci |first1=David |title=How income varies among U.S. religious groups |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2016/10/11/how-income-varies-among-u-s-religious-groups/ |website=Pew Research Center |date=October 11, 2016 |access-date=July 7, 2024}}</ref> As of 2016, Jehovah's Witnesses were considered to be the most racially diverse Christian denomination in the United States.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=29}} A sociological comparative study by the Pew Research Center found that American Jehovah's Witnesses ranked highest in belief in God, importance of religion in one's life, frequency of religious attendance, frequency of prayers, frequency of Bible reading outside of religious services, belief that their prayers are answered, belief that their religion can only be interpreted one way, belief that theirs is the only one true faith leading to eternal life, opposition to [[abortion]], and opposition to [[homosexuality]]. Jehovah's Witnesses also ranked lowest in interest in politics.<ref>{{cite web|access-date=December 14, 2017|date=June 1, 2008|publisher=Pew Research Center|title=Religious Beliefs and Practices|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2008/06/01/u-s-religious-landscape-survey-religious-beliefs-and-practices|work=U.S. Religious Landscape Survey}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|access-date=December 14, 2017|publisher=Pew Research Center|title=Jehovah's Witnesses|url=http://www.pewforum.org/religious-landscape-study/religious-tradition/jehovahs-witness|work=U.S. Religious Landscape Survey}}</ref>

==History==
{{Main|History of Jehovah's Witnesses}}

Scholarly analysis of Jehovah's Witnesses is limited in academia,{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=2}} with most works focusing on legal challenges faced by the group.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Knox |first1=Zoe |title=The History of the Jehovah's Witnesses: An Appraisal of Recent Scholarship |journal=Journal of Religious History |date=2017 |volume=41 |issue=2 |pages=258–259|doi=10.1111/1467-9809.12425 }}</ref> The denomination does not cooperate with scholars beyond limited communication from anonymous individuals. Consequently, academics often rely on literature written by former members such as [[James Penton]] and [[Raymond Franz]] to understand its inner workings.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=3}} The denomination has been variously described as a ''church'', ''[[sect]]'', ''[[new religious movement]]'', or ''[[cult]]''. Usage of the various terms has been debated among sociologists.{{sfn|Knox|2018|page=19}} When the term ''sect'' is used by sociologists, it is within the framework of [[church-sect typology]] for their activities within a specific country.{{sfn|Knox|2018|page=19}} Sociologists from the 1940s to the 1960s frequently compared the group's structure with [[totalitarianism]].{{sfn|Chu|Peltonen|2025}} Throughout the 1970s and 80s, sociologists determined that ''cult'' was a reductionist label when applied to Jehovah's Witnesses, noting that new members did not undergo "sudden transformations" and made a rational choice to join the group.{{sfn|Chu|Peltonen|2025}} Academics generally stopped using the term ''cult'' in the 1980s due to its [[pejorative]] association and its usage by the [[Christian countercult movement]], with ''new religious movement'' largely replacing it.{{sfn|Knox|2018|page=20}} Scholars [[George Chryssides]] and [[Zoe Knox]] avoid using the term ''new religious movement'' because it also has negative connotations.{{sfn|Knox|2018|page=20}} Chryssides refers to the denomination as an "old new religion".{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=2}} 

===Background===
{{Main|Bible Student movement}}

[[File:C.T. Russell.gif|upright|thumb|Charles Taze Russell, founder of the Watch Tower Society]]
In 1870, [[Charles Taze Russell]] and others formed a group in [[Pittsburgh|Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania]], to study the Bible.{{sfn|Rogerson|1969|page=6}} During his ministry, Russell disputed many of mainstream Christianity's tenets, including immortality of the soul, hellfire, predestination, Christ's return, the Trinity, and the burning up of the world.{{sfn|Beckford|1975|page=2}} In 1876, he met [[Nelson H. Barbour]]. Later that year they jointly produced the book ''[[Three Worlds (book)|Three Worlds]],'' which combined [[restitution (theology)|restitutionist]] views with [[Eschatology|end time]] prophecy.{{sfn|Beckford|1975|page=2}}

The book taught that God's dealings with humanity were divided [[Dispensationalism|dispensationally]], with each period ending with a "harvest", and that Jesus inaugurated the "harvest of the Gospel age" by means of his invisible return in 1874.{{sfn|Beckford|1975|page=2}} The book asserted that 1914 would mark the end of a 2,520-year period called "the Gentile Times",{{sfn|Crompton|1996|pages=37–39}} at which time world society would be replaced by the full establishment of God's kingdom on earth.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chryssides |first=George |date=July 29, 2010 |title=How Prophecy Succeeds: Jehovah's Witnesses and Prophetic Expectations |url=https://journal.equinoxpub.com/IJSNR/article/view/12210 |journal=International Journal for the Study of New Religions |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=33–48 |doi=10.1558/ijsnr.v1i1.27 |issn=2041-952X|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Beginning in 1878, Russell and Barbour jointly edited a religious magazine, ''Herald of the Morning''.{{sfn|Botting|Botting|1984|page=36}} In June 1879, the two split over doctrinal differences, and in July, Russell began publishing the magazine ''[[The Watchtower|Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence]]'',{{sfn|Holden|2002|page=18}} saying its purpose was to demonstrate that the world was in "the last days" and that a new age of earthly and human restitution under Jesus' reign was imminent.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Abrahams |first=Edward H. |date=1977 |title=The Pain of the Millennium: Charles Taze Russell and the Jehovah's Witnesses 1879–1916 |journal=American Studies |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=57–70 |jstor=40641257 |issn=0026-3079}}</ref>

From 1879, ''Watch Tower'' supporters gathered as autonomous congregations to study the Bible topically. Thirty congregations were founded, and during 1879 and 1880, Russell visited each to provide the format he recommended for conducting meetings.<ref name=":0" /> In 1881, ''Zion's Watch Tower Tract Society'' was presided over by [[William Henry Conley]], and in 1884, Russell incorporated the society as a nonprofit business to distribute tracts and Bibles.<ref>{{harvnb|Chryssides|2008|page=xxxiv}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Vergilius Ture Anselm Ferm |title=Religion in the Twentieth Century|page=383|publisher=Philosophical Library|year=1948}}</ref> He also published a six book series entitled ''[[Studies in the Scriptures]]''.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=18}} By about 1900, Russell had organized thousands of part- and full-time [[Colportage|colporteur]]s,{{sfn|Holden|2002|page=18}} and was appointing foreign [[missionaries]] and establishing branch offices. By the 1910s, Russell's organization maintained nearly a hundred "pilgrims", or traveling preachers.{{sfn|Holden|2002|page=19}} Russell engaged in significant global publishing efforts during his ministry,<ref>{{cite book|page=35 |publisher=Greenwood Press|title=A Chronology and Glossary of Propaganda in the United States|year=1996}}</ref>{{sfn|Penton|1997|pages=26–29}} and by 1912, he was the most distributed Christian author in the United States.<ref>{{cite magazine |author=Ellis |first=W. T. |date=October 3, 1912 |title=(Title unknown) |magazine=The Continent |publisher=McCormick Publishing Company |page=1354 |volume=43 |issue=40}}</ref> He also directed ''[[The Photo-Drama of Creation]]'', an eight-hour audiovisual presentation featuring biblical accounts.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=19}}

Russell moved the Watch Tower Society's headquarters to [[Brooklyn, New York]], in 1909, combining printing and corporate offices with a house of worship; volunteers were housed in a nearby residence he named ''Bethel''. He identified the religious movement as "Bible Students", and more formally as the [[Bible Student movement#International Bible Students Association|International Bible Students Association]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Conser |first1=Walter H. |title=Religious Diversity and American Religious History |last2=Twiss |first2=Sumner B. |publisher=University of Georgia Press |year=1997 |page=136}}</ref> By 1910, about 50,000 people worldwide were associated with the movement<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |page=374|title=The New Schaff–Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge|volume=7|year=1910}}</ref> and congregations reelected him annually as their pastor.{{sfn|Penton|1997|page=26}} Russell died on October 31, 1916, at the age of 64 while returning from a ministerial speaking tour.{{sfn|Rogerson|1969|page=31}}

===Joseph Rutherford===
[[File:J.F. Rutherford.gif|thumb|right|upright|Joseph Rutherford in 1910]]
In January 1917, the Watch Tower Society's legal representative, [[Joseph Franklin Rutherford]], was elected as its next president. His [[Watch Tower Society presidency dispute (1917)|election was disputed]], and members of the Board of Directors accused him of acting in an autocratic and secretive manner.{{sfn|Penton|1997|page=53}} The divisions between his supporters and opponents triggered a major turnover of members over the next decade.{{sfn|Penton|1997|pages=58, 61–62}}{{sfn|Crompton|1996|page=101}} Because of disappointment over the changes and [[Unfulfilled Watch Tower Society predictions#1925: Resurrection of the patriarchs|unfulfilled predictions]], tens of thousands of defections occurred during the first half of Rutherford's tenure, leading to the formation of several Bible Student organizations independent of the Watch Tower Society,{{sfn|Rogerson|1969|pages=39, 52}}<ref>{{cite book |author=Herbert H. Stroup |location=New York|pages=14, 15|publisher=Columbia University Press|title=The Jehovah's Witnesses|year=1945}}</ref><ref name="Penton, 1997, 58">{{harvnb|Penton|1997|pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=38SYXalMLeQC&pg=PA58 58], [https://books.google.com/books?id=38SYXalMLeQC&pg=PA61 61]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Gruss|first=Edmond C.|title=Jehovah's Witnesses: Their Claims, Doctrinal Changes, and Prophetic Speculation. What Does the Record Show?|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kSZL8BWc9KcC&pg=PA218 |year=2001|publisher=Xulon Press|isbn=978-1-931232-30-2|page=218}}</ref> the largest of which was the [[Dawn Bible Students Association]].{{sfn|Crompton|1996|page=150}} There are varying estimates of how many Bible Students left during Rutherford's tenure, with Alan Rogerson believing the total number to be unclear.{{sfn|Rogerson|1969|page=52}} By mid-1919, an estimated one in seven of Russell-era Bible Students had ceased their association with the Society. Between 1921 and 1931 three-quarters were estimated to have left.<ref name="Penton, 1997, 58"/><ref>{{cite book|last=Gruss |first=Edmond C.|year=1970|isbn=978-0-87552-305-7|page=265|publisher=Presbyterian and Reformed Publishing Co.|title=Apostles of Denial: An Examination and Exposé of the History, Doctrines and Claims of the Jehovah's Witnesses |url=https://archive.org/stream/ApostlesOfDenial/1970_Apostles_Of_Denial#page/n275/mode/1up}}</ref>

Rutherford enacted several changes under his leadership, many of which are considered "distinctive" to modern Jehovah's Witness beliefs and practices. Some of these changes include advocating for door-to-door preaching, prohibiting celebrations believed to be pagan such as Christmas, the belief that Jesus died on a stake instead of a cross, and a more uniform [[#Organization|organization]]al hierarchy.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=21}} In 1919, Rutherford instituted the appointment of a director in each congregation, and a year later all members were instructed to report their weekly preaching activity to the Brooklyn headquarters.{{sfn|Franz|2007|loc="Chapter 4"}} In 1920, he announced that the Hebrew patriarchs (such as [[Abraham]] and [[Isaac]]) would be resurrected in 1925, marking the beginning of [[Christ]]'s [[Millennialism|thousand-year earthly kingdom]].{{sfn|Franz|2007|page=144}}<ref>{{cite journal|first=George D.|last=Chryssides|author-link=George Chryssides|doi=10.1558/ijsnr.v1i1.27 |issn=2041-952X |issue=1|journal=International Journal for the Study of New Religions|pages=27–48|title=How Prophecy Succeeds: The Jehovah's Witnesses and Prophetic Expectations |volume=1|year=2010}}</ref> In July 1917, he released ''The Finished Mystery'' as a seventh volume to the ''Studies in the Scriptures'' series. Rutherford claimed it to be Russell's posthumous work, but it was actually written by Clayton Woodworth, George Fisher, and Gertrude Seibert.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=20}} It strongly criticized Catholic and Protestant clergy and Christian involvement in the [[World War I|Great War]].{{sfn|Penton|1997|page=55}} As a result, Watch Tower Society directors were jailed for [[sedition]] under the ''[[Espionage Act of 1917|Espionage Act]]'' in 1918 and members were subjected to mob violence; the directors were released in March 1919 and charges against them were dropped in 1920.{{sfn|Rogerson|1969|page=44}} 

On July 26, 1931, at a convention in [[Columbus, Ohio]], Rutherford introduced the new name ''Jehovah's witnesses'', based on [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]] 43:10: "Ye are my witnesses, saith the Lord, and my servant whom I have chosen: that ye may know and believe me, and understand that I am he: before me there was no God formed, neither shall there be after me" (King James Version). It was adopted by resolution. The name was chosen to distinguish his group of Bible Students from other independent groups that had severed ties with the Society, as well as to symbolize the instigation of new outlooks and the promotion of fresh evangelizing methods.<ref name="Rogerson 1969 55">{{harvnb|Rogerson|1969|page=55}}.</ref><ref name="Beckford 1975 30">{{harvnb|Beckford|1975|page=30}}.</ref> 

In 1932, Rutherford eliminated the system of locally elected elders.{{sfn|Franz|2007|loc="Chapter 4"}} In 1938, he introduced what he called a [[theocratic]] organizational system, under which appointments in congregations worldwide were made from the Brooklyn headquarters.{{sfn|Franz|2007|loc="Chapter 4"}} Doctrine regarding [[#Life after death|life after death]] also evolved under his tenure. In addition to the preexisting belief that there would be 144,000 people to survive Armageddon and live in heaven to rule over earth with Jesus, a separate class of members, the "great multitude", was introduced. This group would live in a paradise restored on earth; from 1935, new converts to the movement were considered part of that class.<ref>{{harvnb|Beckford|1975|page=31}}</ref>{{sfn|Penton|1997|pages=71–72}} By the mid-1930s, the timing of the beginning of Jesus' presence, his enthronement as king, and the start of the last days were each moved to 1914.{{sfn|Crompton|1996|pages=109–110}} As their interpretations of the Bible evolved, Witness publications decreed that saluting national flags was a form of idolatry, which led to a new outbreak of mob violence and [[#Government interactions|government opposition]] in various countries.<ref>{{harvnb|Beckford|1975|page=35}}</ref>{{sfn|Garbe|2008|pp=145}}

===Nathan Knorr===
[[File:NathanHomerKnorr-WTPres.png|thumb|right|upright|Nathan Knorr, the third president of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society]]
{{See also|Development of Jehovah's Witnesses doctrine}}
[[Nathan H. Knorr|Nathan Knorr]] was appointed as third president of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society in 1942. Knorr organized large international assemblies, instituted new training programs for members, and expanded missionary activity and branch offices worldwide.<ref name="auto1">{{harvnb|Beckford|1975|pages=47–52}}</ref> He also increased the use of explicit instructions guiding Jehovah's Witnesses' lifestyle and conduct as well as a greater use of congregational judicial procedures to enforce a strict moral code.<ref>{{harvnb|Beckford|1975|pages=52–55}}</ref>{{sfn|Penton|1997|pages=89–90}} Watch Tower Society literature stopped crediting individual contributors during his tenure, as he believed that recognition should only be given to God.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=23}}  

Knorr commissioned a new translation of the Bible, the ''[[New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures]]'', the full version of which was released in 1961.<ref name="auto1"/> Various Bible scholars, including [[Bruce M. Metzger]]<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Metzger|first1=Bruce|date=July 1, 1964|doi=10.1177/000608446401500311|journal=The Bible Translator|volume=15|issue=3|page=151|s2cid=220318160|title=Book Review: New World Translation of the Christian Greek Scriptures|url=http://www.ubs-translations.org/tbt/1964/03/TBT196403.html?seq=49|access-date=October 30, 2018|archive-date=August 2, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200802013602/http://www.ubs-translations.org/tbt/1964/03/TBT196403.html?seq=49|url-status=dead}}</ref> and [[MacLean Gilmour]],<ref>{{cite journal|first=MacLean |last=Gilmour |date=September 1, 1966|issue=1|journal=Andover Newton Quarterly|pages=25–26|title=The Use and Abuse of the Book of Revelation|volume=7}}</ref> have said that while scholarship is evident in ''New World Translation'', its rendering of certain texts is inaccurate and biased in favor of Witness practices and doctrines.<ref name="pentongov"/><ref>{{cite book |last1=Ankerberg |first1=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rLHuulPCiTgC&pg=PA43 |title=The Facts on Jehovah's Witnesses |last2=Weldon |first2=John |last3=Burroughs |first3=Dillon |publisher=Harvest House Publishers |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-7369-3907-2 |location=Eugene, Oregon |pages=43–45}} See also John Ankerberg and John Weldon, 2003, ''The New World Translation of the Jehovah's Witnesses'', accessible [https://web.archive.org/web/20121029043702/http://www.johnankerberg.org/Articles/ATRI-Bible-School/Fall-Bible-School/fall-bible-school-jw-new-world-translation.htm online].</ref> Critics of the group such as Edmund C. Gruss<ref>{{cite book |author=Gruss |first=Edmond C. |title=Apostles of Denial |page=211}}</ref> and Christian writers such as [[Ray Stedman|Ray C. Stedman]],<ref>Stedman, R.C., "The New World Translation of the Christian Greek Scriptures", ''Our Hope'' 50; 34, July 1953. 30 as quoted in Edmond C. Gruss, ''Apostles of Denial'', p. 209.</ref> [[Walter Ralston Martin|Walter Martin]], Norman Klann,<ref>{{cite book|first1=W.|last1=Martin|first2=N.|last2=Klann |location=Minneapolis |page=161|publisher=Bethany|title=Jehovah of the Watchtower|year=1974}}</ref> and [[Anthony A. Hoekema|Anthony Hoekema]]{{sfn|Hoekema|1963|page=208–209}} say the ''New World Translation'' is scholastically dishonest. Most criticism of the ''New World Translation'' relates to its rendering of the New Testament, particularly regarding the introduction of the name ''Jehovah'' and in passages related to the Trinity doctrine.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |year=2005 |title=The New Catholic Encyclopedia |publisher=Gale |editor=Hébert |editor-first=G. |volume=7 |page=751 |chapter=Jehovah's Witnesses}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Anthony A. Hoekema|isbn=0802831176|pages=208–209|publisher=William B. Eerdmans|title=The Four Major Cults: Christian Science, Jehovah's Witnesses, Mormonism, Seventh-day Adventism|year=1963}}</ref>

The offices of elder and ministerial servant were restored to Witness congregations in 1972.<ref>{{harvnb|Chryssides|2008|pages=32,112}}</ref> In a major organizational overhaul in 1976, the power of the Watch Tower Society president was diminished, with authority for doctrinal and organizational decisions being passed to the [[Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses|Governing Body]].<ref>{{harvnb|Chryssides|2008|page=64}}</ref> Knorr introduced these changes as he believed that people making spiritual decisions should be "called by Christ" rather than elected.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=24}} The presidency's role transitioned into heading the denomination's [[legal entity]].{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=24}} The distinction between these roles grew further when all Governing Body members resigned as directors and the [[Christian Congregation of Jehovah's Witnesses, Inc.]] was formed in 2000.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=26}} Since Knorr's death in 1977, the presidency has been held by [[Frederick Franz]],<ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Ostling |first1=Richard |title=Witness Under Prosecution |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,922767,00.html |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930061930/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,922767,00.html |access-date=November 13, 2023|archive-date=September 30, 2007 }}</ref> [[Milton George Henschel|Milton Henschel]],<ref>{{cite news |title=Milton Henschel, 72; Executive Who Led Jehovah's Witnesse |work=The New York Times |date=March 30, 2003 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2003/03/30/nyregion/milton-henschel-72-executive-who-led-jehovah-s-witnesses.html |access-date=November 13, 2023}}</ref> [[Don Alden Adams]]<ref>''Yearbook of American & Canadian Churches 2009, Volume 2009'' by Eileen W. Lindner, Abingdon Press, p. 131</ref> and [[Robert Ciranko]].<ref name=McCoy>{{cite book|author-last=McCoy|author-first=Daniel J.|title=The Popular Handbook of World Religions|publisher=Harvest House Publishers|year=2021|page=287}}</ref>

===Further development===
From 1966, Witness publications and convention talks built anticipation of the possibility that Jesus' thousand-year reign might begin in 1975<ref>{{harvnb|Chryssides|2008|page=19}}</ref> or shortly thereafter.<ref name="Penton, 1997, 95" >{{harvnb|Penton|1997|page=95}}</ref>{{sfn|Botting|Botting|1984|page=46}} The number of baptisms increased significantly, from about 59,000 in 1966 to more than 297,000 in 1974. By 1975, the number of active members exceeded two million. From 1971 to 1981, there was a net increase of 737,241 publishers worldwide, while baptisms totaled 1.71 million for the same period.<ref name="Stark">{{cite journal |author=Stark |last2=Iannoccone |name-list-style=and |year=1997 |title=Why the Jehovah's Witnesses Grow So Rapidly: A Theoretical Application |url=http://www.kotiposti.net/raamattu/jt/doc/study-why-jw-grow-so-rapidly.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=[[Journal of Contemporary Religion]] |pages=142–143 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190412073649/http://www.kotiposti.net/raamattu/jt/doc/study-why-jw-grow-so-rapidly.pdf |archive-date=April 12, 2019 |access-date=July 16, 2013}}</ref> Watch Tower Society literature did not say that 1975 would definitely mark the end,<ref name="Penton, 1997, 95" /> though it was strongly implied. Frederick Franz, then–president of the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society, stated at a 1975 convention that the [[great tribulation]] could be expected to start by the end of that year. Many Jehovah's Witnesses acted upon this information by quitting their jobs and preaching more fervently. After that prediction failed, ordinary Jehovah's Witness members were blamed for believing in the date rather than the Governing Body acknowledging responsibility. Membership declined significantly for a few years after the failed prediction.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|pages=120–122}} 

Jehovah's Witnesses have not set any specific dates for the end since 1975. Their publications emphasize that "one cannot know the day or the hour", but they still believe Armageddon to be imminent. Verse 34 of [[Matthew 24]], where Jesus tells his disciples that "this generation will by no means pass away until all these things happen", was interpreted to refer to the generation of people alive in 1914. The initial teaching was that Armageddon would begin before the last person alive during that timeframe had died. The time limit was removed in 1995. This doctrine changed further in 2008, where ''generation'' was interpreted to refer to both the original anointed class and their remnant, the latter of which would be alive when Armageddon began. In 2010, the meaning of ''generation'' was re-interpreted to include individuals whose lives overlapped with anointed individuals alive during 1914.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|pages=123–125}}

==Organization==
{{Main|Organizational structure of Jehovah's Witnesses}}

[[File:Watchtower Bible & Tract Society (world headquarters).jpg|thumb|right|Former world headquarters of Jehovah's Witnesses]]
Jehovah's Witnesses are organized [[Hierarchy|hierarchically]], in what the leadership calls a theocratic organization, reflecting their belief that it is God's visible organization on earth.{{sfn|Penton|1997|page=211}} Jehovah's Witnesses establish branch offices to manage their activities in various countries or regions.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=70}} Each branch office is also referred to as Bethel.<ref name="Chryssides 2008 pages=17–18">{{harvnb|Chryssides|2008|pages=17–18}}</ref> Supporting staff live on these properties where they operate as a religious community and administrative unit.<ref name="Chryssides 2008 pages=17–18"/> Their living expenses and those of other full-time volunteers are covered along with a basic monthly [[stipend]].<ref>{{cite book|first=M. James|last=Penton|edition=3rd|isbn=978-1442616059|pages=326, 460–461 |publisher=University of Toronto Press|title=Apocalypse Delayed: The Story of Jehovah's Witnesses|year=2015 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zNfTBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA326}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Botting|Botting|1984|page=32}}</ref> These volunteers are called Bethelites and are assigned specific tasks such as printing literature or doing laundry. They are allowed to marry but must leave Bethel if they have children. Bethelites are expected to read the Bible cover-to-cover during their first year of service. Consultants are sometimes hired for specialized tasks such as legal advice. Regular Jehovah's Witness members are encouraged to visit Bethel as a recreational activity.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|pages=72–73}}

Traveling overseers appoint local elders and ministerial servants, while branch offices may appoint regional committees for matters such as [[Kingdom Hall]] construction or disaster relief.{{sfn|Penton|1997|page=101, 233–235}} Each congregation has a body of appointed unpaid male elders and ministerial servants. Elders maintain general responsibility for congregational governance, setting meeting times, selecting speakers and conducting meetings, directing the public preaching work, and creating judicial committees to investigate and decide disciplinary action for cases involving sexual misconduct or doctrinal breaches.<ref name="alternative">{{Citation|last1=Gallagher |first1=Eugene V.|last2=Ashcraft|first2=W. Michael |title=Introduction to New and Alternative Religions in America|place=Westport, Connecticut |publisher=Greenwood Press|volume=2|year=2006|page=69 |isbn=978-0-275-98712-1}}</ref> New elders are appointed by a traveling overseer after recommendation by the existing body of elders. Ministerial servants—appointed in a similar manner as elders—fulfill clerical and attendant duties, but may also teach and conduct meetings.<ref name="pentongov">{{harvnb|Penton|1997|pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=38SYXalMLeQC&pg=PA175 174–176]}}</ref> Jehovah's Witnesses do not use ''elder'' as a title to signify a formal clergy-laity division,<ref>{{cite book|first=Elizabeth J.|last=Taylor|isbn=978-0-8261-0860-9|page=163 |publisher=Springer Publishing Company|title=Religion: A Clinical Guide for Nurses|year=2012}}</ref> though elders may employ [[ecclesiastical privilege]] regarding confession of sins.<ref>{{cite web|date=July 27, 2015|page=16|title=Case Study 29: Transcript (day 147) |website=Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse |url=https://www.childabuseroyalcommission.gov.au/sites/default/files/file-list/Case%20Study%2029%20-%20Transcript%20-%20Jehovahs%20Witnesses%20-%20Day%20147%20-%2027072015.pdf}}</ref>

Much of the denomination's funding is donated, primarily by members. There is no [[tithe|tithing]] or collection.<ref name="Hans" >{{cite book|last=Hesse|first=Hans|title=Persecution and Resistance of Jehovah's Witnesses During the Nazi-Regime |publisher=Edition Temmen c/o|year=2001|location=Chicago|pages=296, 298 |isbn=978-3-861-08750-2}}</ref> In 2001 ''[[Newsday]]'' listed the Watch Tower Society as one of [[New York City|New York]]'s 40 richest corporations, with revenues exceeding $950&nbsp;million.<ref name="pub_titans"/><ref>{{cite web|title=At the Top / NYC Company Profiles / NYC 40|url=https://www.newsday.com/business/technology/at-the-top-nyc-company-profiles-nyc-40-1.365255|website=Newsday|access-date=July 30, 2019|archive-date=November 12, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112025603/https://www.newsday.com/business/technology/at-the-top-nyc-company-profiles-nyc-40-1.365255|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2016, it ranked eighteenth for donations received by registered charities in Canada at $80 million.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Miller |first1=Derek |title=9 things you likely didn't know about Jehovah's Witnesses |url=https://www.ctvnews.ca/w5/9-things-you-likely-didn-t-know-about-jehovah-s-witnesses-1.3839669 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220903031331/https://www.ctvnews.ca/w5/9-things-you-likely-didn-t-know-about-jehovah-s-witnesses-1.3839669 |url-status=dead |archive-date=September 3, 2022 |website=CTV News |date=March 24, 2018 |access-date=July 7, 2024}}</ref> From 1969 until 2015, the denomination's headquarters were housed in [[Brooklyn]], with plans to completely move its operations to [[Warwick, New York|Warwick]] in 2017.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Matthews |first1=Karen |title=Jehovah's Witnesses to sell Brooklyn properties, may get $1 billion U.S. |url=https://www.thestar.com/news/world/jehovah-s-witnesses-to-sell-brooklyn-properties-may-get-1-billion-u-s/article_714bf567-93be-5e8d-a7c3-a5c0a2b1f42d.html |website=Toronto Star |date=December 13, 2015 |publisher=Associated Press |access-date=June 11, 2024}}</ref> The property was sold to [[Kushner Companies]] for $340 million in 2016.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Levitt |first1=David |title=A Bad Sign for Owners of Brooklyn's Famed Watchtower Building |url=https://www.bnnbloomberg.ca/a-bad-sign-for-owners-of-brooklyn-s-famed-watchtower-building-1.1122013 |website=BNN Bloomberg |access-date=June 11, 2024}}</ref>

=== Governing Body ===
{{main|Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses}}

The denomination is led by the Governing Body—an all-male group that varies in size. The Governing Body directs several committees that are responsible for administrative functions, including publishing, assembly programs and evangelizing activities.<ref name="pentongov" /> [[Doctrine]]s of Jehovah's Witnesses are established by the Governing Body, which assumes responsibility for [[exegesis|interpreting]] and applying scripture.{{sfn|Penton|1997|pages=58, 61–62}} The Governing Body does not issue a single, comprehensive statement of faith, but expresses its doctrinal positions through publications published by the Watch Tower Society.<ref>{{harvnb|Beckford|1975|page=119}}</ref> The publications teach that doctrinal changes and refinements result from a process of progressive [[revelation]], in which God gradually reveals his will and purpose,{{sfn|Penton|1997|pages=165–171}} and that such enlightenment or "new light" results from the application of reason and study.{{sfn|Penton|1997|page=165}} 

Sociologist Andrew Holden's [[Ethnography|ethnographic]] study of the group concluded that pronouncements of the Governing Body, through Watch Tower Society publications, carry almost as much weight as the Bible.<ref>{{harvnb|Holden|2002|page=67}}.</ref> The organization makes no provision for members to criticize or contribute to its teachings.<ref>{{harvnb|Beckford|1975|pages=84, 89, 92, 119–120}}</ref> Witness publications strongly discourage followers from questioning doctrine and counsel received from the Governing Body, reasoning that it is to be trusted as part of "God's organization".{{sfn|Beckford|1975|pages=89, 95, 103, 120, 204, 221}} The denomination does not tolerate dissent over doctrines and practices;{{sfn|Beckford|1975|pages=89, 95, 103, 120, 204, 221}} members who openly disagree with the group's teachings are expelled and shunned.<ref name="Muramoto">{{cite journal|author=Muramoto, O.|title=Bioethics of the refusal of blood by Jehovah's Witnesses: Part 1. Should bioethical deliberation consider dissidents' views?|journal=Journal of Medical Ethics|date=August 1998|volume=24|issue=4|pages=223–230|pmc=1377670 |pmid=9752623|doi=10.1136/jme.24.4.223}}</ref>

===Gender roles===
Jehovah's Witnesses have a [[complementarianism|complementarian]] view of women. Only men may hold positions of authority, such as ministerial servant or elder. Women may actively participate in the [[#Evangelism|public preaching work]], serve at [[Organizational structure of Jehovah's Witnesses#Branch offices|Bethel]],{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|p=67}} and profess to be members of the [[#Life after death|144,000]].{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|p=68}} They are not typically allowed to address the congregation directly.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|p=13}} In rare circumstances, women can substitute in certain capacities if there are no eligible men. In these situations, women must wear a [[Christian head covering|head covering]] if they are performing a teaching role.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|p=67}} Jehovah's Witnesses believe that [[transgender]] people should live as the gender they were assigned at birth and view [[gender-affirming surgery]] as mutilation.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sharzer |first1=Leonard |last2=Jones |first2=David |last3=Alipour |first3=Mehrdad |last4=Pacha |first4=Kesley |title=Gender Confirmation Surgery: Principles and Techniques for an Emerging Field |date=2020 |isbn=978-3-030-29093-1 |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-29093-1 |pages=237–257|publisher=Springer }}</ref> Modesty in dress and grooming is frequently emphasized for both men and women.{{sfn|Penton|1997|pages=152, 180}}

==Beliefs==
{{Main|Jehovah's Witnesses beliefs}}

Jehovah's Witnesses believe their denomination is a restoration of [[Christianity in the 1st century|first-century Christianity]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Van Voorst, Robert E.|isbn=978-1-1117-2620-1|page=288|publisher=Cengage Learning|title=RELG: World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QvNWxEEaf50C&pg=PT303|year=2012}}</ref> They believe that [[Nicene Christianity|mainstream Christianity]] departed from true worship over time, that groups such as [[Cathars]] attempted to restore some aspects of it, and that the [[Protestant Reformation]] "did not go far enough".{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|pages=57, 58}} Older books published by the Watch Tower Society such as those by Charles Russell and Joseph Rutherford are usually unfamiliar to a modern Jehovah's Witness, although some congregations have these publications in their libraries.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=14}} Jehovah's Witnesses consider the Bible [[Criticism of the Bible#The Bible and science|scientifically]] and [[The Bible and history|historically]] accurate and reliable and interpret much of it [[Biblical literalism|literally]], but accept parts of it as [[Allegorical interpretation of the Bible|symbolic]].{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|pages=43, 44}} Jehovah's Witnesses are [[old Earth creationist]]s.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=44}} The entire Protestant [[Biblical canon|canon of scripture]] is considered the [[Biblical inspiration|inspired]], [[Biblical inerrancy|inerrant]] word of God.{{sfn|Penton|1997|page=172}} Regular personal Bible reading is frequently recommended. Members are discouraged from formulating doctrines and "private ideas" reached through Bible research independent of Watch Tower Society publications and are cautioned against reading other religious literature.<ref name="Bevindependent">James A. Beverley, ''Crisis of Allegiance'', Welch Publishing Company, Burlington, Ontario, 1986, {{ISBN|0-920413-37-4}}, pp. 25–26, 101.</ref> Adherents commonly call their body of beliefs "The Truth".<ref>{{cite journal|first=Richard|last=Singelenberg |doi=10.2307/3710916 |issue=Spring 1989|journal=Sociological Analysis|jstor=3710916|pages=23–40|title=It Separated the Wheat From the Chaff: The 1975 Prophecy and its Impact Among Dutch Jehovah's Witnesses |volume=50|year=1989}}</ref>

===Jehovah===
Jehovah's Witnesses emphasize the use of God's name, and they prefer the form ''[[Jehovah]]''&mdash;a vocalization of [[God in Christianity|God]]'s name based on the [[Tetragrammaton]].<ref>{{harvnb|Holden|2002|page=24}}.</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Jehovas vitner: en flerfaglig studie |publisher=Universitetsforlaget |year=2009 |isbn=978-82-15-01453-1 |editor-last1=Ringnes |editor-first1=Hege Kristin |location=Oslo, Norway |page=27 |language=no |editor-last2=Sødal |editor-first2=Helje Kringlebotn}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|access-date=April 4, 2017|author=Holden, A.|page=Endnote [i]|publisher=Department of Sociology, Lancaster University, Lancaster LA1 4YL, UK|title=Cavorting With the Devil: Jehovah's Witnesses Who Abandon Their Faith|url=http://www.lancaster.ac.uk/fass/resources/sociology-online-papers/papers/holden-cavorting-with-the-devil.pdf|year=2002}}</ref> They believe that Jehovah is the only true god, the creator of all things, and the "Universal Sovereign". They believe that all worship should be directed toward him, and that he is not part of a [[Trinity]];{{sfn|Rogerson|1969|page=87}} consequently, the group places more emphasis on God than on Christ.<ref>{{harvnb|Beckford|1975|page=105}}.</ref> They believe that the [[Holy Spirit in Christianity|Holy Spirit]] is God's applied power or "active force".{{sfn|Rogerson|1969|page=90}} Jehovah's Witnesses believe that they can have a personal relationship with God.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=48}}

===Jesus===
Jehovah's Witnesses believe that [[Jesus in Christianity|Jesus]] is God's only direct creation, that everything else was created through him by means of God's power, and that the initial unassisted act of creation uniquely identifies Jesus as God's "only-begotten Son".{{sfn|Hoekema|1963|p=262}} As part of their nontrinitarian beliefs, they do not believe that Jesus is [[God the Son]].{{sfn|Chryssides|2016b|p=429}} They do believe that he was the first [[angel]],{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=50}} and is the only [[archangel]].{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=51}} Jehovah's Witnesses believe that [[Mary, mother of Jesus|Mary]] conceived Jesus as a virgin{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=43}} but do not believe that she [[Immaculate Conception|was born free from sin]] or that she remained a [[Perpetual virginity of Mary|virgin after his birth]].{{sfn|Chryssides|2019|page=224}} Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Jesus served as a [[Redeemer (Christianity)|redeemer]] and a [[Ransom theory of atonement|ransom sacrifice]] to atone for [[original sin]].{{sfn|Hoekema|1963|pp=276–277}}{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|pages=52, 53}} They believe that he [[Crucifixion of Jesus|died]] on a [[Crux simplex|single upright post]] rather than a [[Latin cross|cross]],{{sfn|Penton|1997|page=372}} which they regard as a pagan symbol. Accordingly, they do not use the word "crucifixion" when referring to Jesus' death.{{sfn|Chryssides|2016b|p=429}} Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Jesus was resurrected with a "spirit body", and that he assumed human form only temporarily after his resurrection.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last1=Ankerberg |first1=John |title=The Facts on Jehovah's Witnesses |last2=Weldon |first2=John |last3=Burroughs |first3=Dillion |date=2008 |publisher=Harvest House Publishing |isbn=9780736939072 |pages=53, 25, 32 |language=en}}</ref> Biblical references to [[Michael (archangel)|Michael]], [[Abaddon]] (Apollyon), and [[Christ the Logos|the Word]] are interpreted as names for Jesus in various roles.{{sfn|Hoekema|1963|p=270}} Jesus is considered the only [[Intercession|intercessor]] and [[high priest]] between God and humanity, appointed by God as the king and judge of his kingdom.<ref name=":1" />

===Life after death===
{{Main|Jehovah's Witnesses and salvation}}

Jehovah's Witnesses believe death is a state of nonexistence with no [[consciousness]]. There is no [[Christian views on hell|Hell]] of fiery torment; [[Christian views on Hades|Hades]] and [[Sheol]] are understood to refer to the condition of death, termed the ''common grave''.<ref>{{harvnb|Hoekema|1963|pages=322–324}}</ref> They consider the [[Soul (spirit)|soul]] a life or a living body that can die.<ref name="hoeksin">{{harvnb|Hoekema|1963|pages=265–269}}</ref> They believe that humanity is in a [[Christian views of sin#Protestant views|sinful]] state,<ref name="hoeksin" /> from which release is possible only by means of Jesus' shed blood as a ransom, or [[substitutionary atonement|atonement]], for humankind's sins.{{sfn|Penton|1997|page=186}} Jehovah's Witnesses believe that a "little flock" of 144,000 selected humans go to heaven, but that God will resurrect the majority (the "other sheep") to a cleansed earth after Armageddon. They interpret [[Revelation 14#The Lamb and the 144,000 (14:1–5)|Revelation 14:1–5]] to mean that the number of Christians going to heaven is limited to exactly 144,000, who will rule with Jesus as kings and priests over earth.{{sfn|Penton|1997|pages=193–194}} They believe that baptism as a Jehovah's Witness is vital for salvation,{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=11}} and do not recognize baptism from other denominations as valid.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=99}} Jehovah's Witnesses believe that some people who died before Armageddon will be resurrected, taught the proper way to worship God, and then face a final test at the end of the [[Millennialism|millennial reign]].<ref>{{harvnb|Hoekema|1963|pages=315–319}}</ref> This judgment will be based on their actions after resurrection rather than past deeds. At the end of the thousand years, Jesus will hand all authority back to God. Then a final test will take place when [[Satan]] is released to mislead humankind. Those who fail will die, along with Satan and his demons.<ref name="auto">{{harvnb|Hoekema|1963|pages=307–321}}</ref> They also believe that those who rejected their beliefs while still alive will not be resurrected.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=162}}

===Eschatology===
{{Main|Eschatology of Jehovah's Witnesses}}

{{See also|Unfulfilled Watch Tower Society predictions}}
Jehovah's Witnesses believe that [[Devil in Christianity|Satan]] was originally a perfect [[angel]] who developed feelings of self-importance and craved worship. Satan influenced [[Adam and Eve]] to disobey God, and humanity subsequently became participants in a challenge involving the competing claims of Jehovah and Satan to universal sovereignty.<ref name="pentonsatan" >{{harvnb|Penton|1997|pages=188–190}}</ref> Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Jesus began to rule invisibly in heaven as king of God's kingdom in October 1914 and that Satan was subsequently [[War in Heaven|ousted from heaven to the earth]]. They base this belief on a rendering of the Greek word ''parousia''—usually translated as "coming" when referring to Jesus—as "presence".{{sfn|Penton|1997|pages=17–19}} Jehovah's Witnesses believe that they are the kingdom's representatives on earth.{{sfn|Rogerson|1969|page=105}} They also believe that they must remain separate from human governments, which they consider to be controlled by Satan.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=89}} The kingdom is viewed as the means by which God will accomplish his original purpose for the earth, transforming it into a paradise without sickness or death.{{sfn|Rogerson|1969|page=106}} Jehovah's Witnesses do not currently suggest any specific date for the end of the world,{{sfn|Chryssides|2008|page=xiv}} but Watch Tower Society literature has previously made such statements about 1914, 1925 and 1975.{{sfn|Chryssides|2008|page=xiv}} These failed predictions were presented as "beyond doubt" and "approved by God".<ref>{{cite book|author=James A. Beverley|isbn=0-920413-37-4|location=Burlington, Ontario|pages=86–91|publisher=Welch Publishing Company|title=Crisis of Allegiance|year=1986}}</ref> Some Watch Tower Society publications state that God has used Jehovah's Witnesses and the International Bible Students as a modern-day prophet.<ref group=en>Raymond Franz cites numerous examples. In ''Crisis of Conscience'', 2002, pg. 173, he quotes from {{cite magazine|magazine=The Watchtower|date=April 1, 1972|title=They Shall Know That a Prophet Was Among Them|pages=197–200|url=https://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/1972241}} which states that God had raised Jehovah's Witnesses as a prophet "to warn (people) of dangers and declare things to come". He also cites {{cite magazine|magazine=The Watchtower|date=May 1, 1997|title=Identifying the Right Kind of Messenger|page=8|url=https://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/1997323 }} which identifies the Witnesses as his "true messengers ... by making the messages he delivers through them come true", in contrast to "false messengers", whose predictions fail. In ''In Search of Christian Freedom,'' 2007, he quotes {{cite book|title=Commissioned to Speak in the Divine Name |publisher=Watchtower Bible and Tract Society|year=1971|pages=70, 292|url=https://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/1101971004}} which describes Witnesses as the modern Ezekiel class, "a genuine prophet within our generation". The Watch Tower book noted: "Concerning the message faithfully delivered by the Ezekiel class, Jehovah positively states that it 'must come true' ... those who wait undecided until it does 'come true' will also have to know that a prophet himself had proved to be in the midst of them." He also cites {{cite magazine|magazine=The Watchtower|date=October 15, 1980|title=Execution of the Great Harlot Nears|page=17|url=https://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/1980765 }} which claims God gives the Witnesses "special knowledge that others do not have ... advance knowledge about this system's end".</ref>

A central teaching of Jehovah's Witnesses is that the world faces imminent destruction through intervention by God and Jesus Christ.<ref>{{harvnb|Hoekema|1963|page=297}}</ref> This belief has been present since the group's founding.{{sfn|Holden|2002|page=7}} They believe that Jesus' inauguration as king in 1914 is a sign that the [[great tribulation]] is about to take place.{{sfn|Penton|2015|page=177}} Jehovah's Witnesses believe that all other present-day religions are false, identifying them with [[Whore of Babylon#Jehovah's Witnesses view|Babylon the Great]], the "harlot" of [[Revelation 17]].<ref>{{harvnb|Hoekema|1963|pages=286}}</ref> They believe that [[Nebuchadnezzar II]] had a dream where he saw a statue with a gold head, silver chest and arms, copper abdomen, iron legs, and feet that were a mixture of clay and iron. This dream is interpreted as a prophecy representing the rise and fall of empires: gold represents Babylon, silver represents Persia, copper represents Greece, iron represents Rome, and clay represents an Anglo-American empire. Jehovah's Witnesses believe that humanity is currently living in the last empire that will eventually be destroyed by the [[United Nations]], which is also interpreted as the [[Jehovah's Witnesses and the United Nations|scarlet-colored wild beast]].{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|pages=114–117}} Satan will subsequently use world governments to attack Jehovah's Witnesses, which will prompt God to begin the war of [[Armageddon]], during which all forms of human government will be destroyed and all people not counted as Jesus' sheep will be killed. After Armageddon, God will extend his heavenly kingdom to include earth, which will be transformed into a paradise like the [[Garden of Eden]].{{sfn|Penton|1997|page=180}} They thus depart from the mainstream Christian belief that the "[[second coming]]" of [[Matthew 24]] refers to a single moment of arrival on earth to judge humans.{{sfn|Penton|1997|pages=17–19}}

===Family life===
Jehovah's Witnesses believe that dating should only occur if the couple is seriously considering marriage. Dating outside the denomination is strongly discouraged and can lead to [[#Disciplinary action|religious sanctions]]. Dating Jehovah's Witnesses are encouraged to have a [[Chaperone (social)|chaperone]] when they are together to avoid acting on sexual desires.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|pages=102–106}} All sexual relations outside marriage are grounds for expulsion if the person is not deemed repentant;<ref>{{cite book|author=Chryssides, G.D.|isbn=978-0-304-33651-7|page=103|publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group|title=Exploring New Religions|year=1999}}</ref> [[homosexuality|homosexual]] activity is considered a serious sin, and [[same-sex marriage]] is forbidden.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=77}} Masturbation is also prohibited.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=85}}

Jehovah's Witnesses may marry at a Kingdom Hall in a simple ceremony and practices considered pagan such as wishing good luck or throwing rice are prohibited. An elder will give a talk to the congregation.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=105}} Once married, a husband is considered to have [[spiritual headship]] over his wife, unless he is not one of Jehovah's Witnesses.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|pages=105–106}} [[Contraception]] is allowed.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=104}} [[Divorce]] is forbidden if not sought on the grounds of [[adultery]], which is called a "scriptural divorce".{{sfn|Penton|1997|pages=110–112}} If a divorce is obtained for any other reason, remarriage is considered adulterous unless the former spouse has died or is considered to have committed [[sexual ethics|sexual immorality]].{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=106}} Spouses may [[legal separation|separate]] in cases of [[domestic violence]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Baird |first1=Julia |last2=Gleeson |first2=Hayley |title=Shattering the silence: Australians tell their stories of surviving domestic violence in the church |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-08-18/shattering-silence-surviving-domestic-violence-in-church/8788902 |website=ABC News |date=August 18, 2017 |access-date=July 6, 2024}}</ref> Jehovah's Witness households are expected to have a family worship session each week.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=76}}

==Practices==
{{Main|Jehovah's Witnesses practices}}

=== Baptism ===
[[Baptism]] is considered a requirement for salvation. Baptisms performed by other denominations are not considered valid.{{sfn|Franz|2007|pages=116–120}} Before being baptized, a member will become an unbaptized publisher.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=32}} Jehovah's Witnesses do not practice [[infant baptism]] but allow children to be baptized as long as they meet the same requirements as other candidates.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=99}} To qualify for baptism, an individual must correctly answer more than a hundred questions about their own lifestyle and the denomination's beliefs.{{sfn|Chryssides|2016b|p=433}} Individuals undergoing baptism are directed to affirm publicly that their dedication and baptism identifies each "as one of Jehovah's Witnesses in association with God's spirit-directed organization,"{{sfn|Franz|2007|pages=116–120}} though Witness publications say baptism symbolizes personal dedication to God and not "to a man, work or organization."{{sfn|Chryssides|2008|page=14}}

===Worship===
[[File:Timsbury Kingdom Hall - geograph.org.uk - 2474467.jpg|thumb|right|The exterior of a Kingdom Hall]]
[[File:Reunião em Salão do Reino.jpg|thumb|right|Worship at a Kingdom Hall in Portugal]]
Meetings for worship and study are held at [[Kingdom Hall]]s, which are typically functional in character, and do not contain religious symbols.<ref name="holdenhall">{{harvnb|Holden|2002|pages=64–69}}.</ref> Witnesses are assigned to a congregation in whose "territory" they usually reside and attend weekly services they call "meetings", scheduled by congregation elders. The meetings are largely devoted to study of Watch Tower Society literature and the Bible. Jehovah's Witnesses have "considerable worldwide uniformity", as all congregations study the same materials on a schedule.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=14}} Outsiders are encouraged to attend.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=59}} 

Historically, congregations met three times each week, but since 2009 meet for two sessions each week: one on a weekday and one on a weekend.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|pages=59, 61}} Jehovah's Witnesses are expected to study the assigned material before attending.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=41}} Children also attend meetings and do not have separate arrangements such as [[Sunday School]].{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=30}} Gatherings are opened and closed with [[hymns]] called [[Kingdom song]]s and brief prayers.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Torres-Pruñonosa |first1=Jose |last2=Plaza-Navas |first2=Miquel-Angel |last3=Brown |first3=Silas |date=2022 |title=Jehovah's Witnesses' adoption of digitally-mediated services during Covid-19 pandemic |journal=Cogent Social Sciences |volume=8 |issue=1 |article-number=2071034 |doi=10.1080/23311886.2022.2071034 |s2cid=248581687 |doi-access=free |hdl=10261/268521 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> A Kingdom Hall may have multiple congregations that share the building. In 2014, decisions about which congregations would share a Kingdom Hall or whether additional Kingdom Halls should be built was transferred from individual congregations to the nearest [[#Organization|branch office]]. After this change, many Kingdom Halls were sold.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=28}}

Twice each year, Jehovah's Witnesses from a number of congregations that form a "circuit" gather for a one-day assembly. Larger groups of congregations meet annually for a three-day "regional convention", usually at an Assembly Hall built for this purpose. Rented stadiums or auditoriums are sometimes used instead.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=68}} New members are baptized at these conventions.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=99}} Jehovah's Witnesses consider their most important annual event to be the [[Memorial of Christ's death|Memorial]], which is observed on the [[Quartodecimanism|fourteenth day]] of the Jewish month [[Nisan]] during [[Passover]],{{sfn|Chryssides|2016b|p=433}} and members advertise the event to outsiders. [[Unleavened bread]] and red wine is passed between attendees, but only those who consider themselves to be anointed partake (often with no one in attendance partaking), and a talk is given about the event's significance.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|pages=101, 102}}

===Evangelism===
{{See also|Jehovah's Witnesses publications}}
[[File:Evangelização.jpg|thumb|right|A pair of Jehovah's Witnesses preaching door-to-door]]
[[File:Jehovah's Witnesses outside the British Museum 02.jpg|thumb|Jehovah's Witnesses outside the [[British Museum]], 2017]]
Jehovah's Witnesses are known for their efforts to spread their beliefs, distributing Watch Tower Society literature. The objective is to start a regular "Bible study" with anyone who is not already a member,<ref>{{harvnb|Ringnes|Sødal|2009|p=43}}.</ref> with the intention that the student be baptized as a member of the group; members are advised to consider discontinuing Bible study with students who show no interest in becoming members.<ref>{{harvnb|Botting|Botting|1984|page=77}}.</ref> While Jehovah's Witnesses are well known for visiting people's homes,{{sfn|Crompton|1996|page=5}} they have a variety of preaching methods.{{sfn|Knox|2018|page=110}} Literature carts were introduced in 2012,{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=27}} where Jehovah's Witnesses stay in a public place and wait for people to approach them.<ref>{{cite web |title=Jehovah's Witnesses bringing community outreach to Albany |url=https://www.timesunion.com/faith/article/jehovah-s-witnesses-bringing-community-outreach-18315913.php |website=Times Union |date=August 24, 2023 |access-date=December 10, 2024}}</ref> Methods usually undertaken by those physically unable to engage in the door-to-door ministry include calling people by phone and writing letters.{{sfn|Knox|2018|page=112}} Jehovah's Witnesses are sometimes confused with [[Mormon missionaries]].{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=33}} Converts as a result of their door-to-door evangelism are rare and happen at a rate comparable with other denominations that practice similar preaching methods.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Iannaccone |first1=Laurence |last2=Stark |first2=Rodney |title=Door-Knockers Knocked |journal=Touchstone: A Journal of Mere Christianity |date=2009 |volume=22 |issue=3 |page=43 |issn=0897-327X}}</ref>

Jehovah's Witnesses are taught that they are under a biblical command to engage in public preaching and often do so by working in pairs.{{sfn|Knox|2018|page=37}} They are instructed to devote as much time as possible to their ministry, and to submit a monthly "Field Service Report".{{sfn|Botting|Botting|1984|page=52}} Those who do not submit reports for six consecutive months are termed "inactive". Children also preach.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=31}} Until 2023, every active Jehovah's Witness was expected to submit the number of hours they spent preaching in their monthly field service report. In November 2023, this requirement was modified to only apply to members who have agreed to a specific hour requirement.<ref name="Smith"/> As of 2025, auxiliary pioneers preach for 30 hours, regular pioneers preach for 50 hours per month; special pioneers preach for 100 hours each month, often in remote or under-represented areas, and receive a stipend to help pay for their living expenses.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=31}} Other members are only required to indicate they engaged in some form of ministry during the month, along with any Bible studies they conducted.<ref name="Smith">{{cite web |last1=Smith |first1=Peter |title=Timekeepers no more, rank-and-file Jehovah's Witnesses say goodbye to tracking proselytizing hours |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/ap-god-russia-new-york-pennsylvania-b2451717.html |website=The Independent |date=November 22, 2023 |access-date=December 7, 2023}}</ref> In {{JWStatistics|year}}, Jehovah's Witnesses conducted about {{JWStatistics|studies|approx}} Bible studies (including studies conducted with their own children<ref>{{cite magazine|magazine=Our Kingdom Ministry|date=November 2003|title=Question Box&ndash;Should a family Bible study be reported to the congregation?|publisher=Watch Tower Society|page=3}}</ref>), and approximately {{JWStatistics|baptized|approx}} new members were baptized.<ref name="jwstatistics" />

The denomination produces a significant amount of literature as part of its evangelism activities.<ref name="pub_titans">{{cite magazine|last=Meyers|first=Jim|date=October 2010|title=Jehovah's Witnesses&mdash;Publishing Titans |url=https://archive.org/download/Newsmax/TourDeGardeNewsmax.pdf#page=2|format=PDF |magazine=Newsmax|location=West Palm Beach, FL|publisher=Newsmax Media}}</ref> In 2010, ''[[The Watchtower]]'' and ''[[Awake!]]'' were the world's most widely distributed magazines.<ref>{{cite web |author=Pompeo |first=Joe |date=September 30, 2010 |title=Did You Know The Most Widely Circulated Magazine In The World Is The Monthly Publication Of Jehovah's Witnesses? |url=http://www.businessinsider.com/the-most-widely-read-magazine-in-the-world-is-the-monthly-pub-of-jehovahs-witnesses-2010-9?IR=T |work=Business Insider}}</ref> Jehovah's Witnesses consider their literature to be "spiritual food" and provide it to interested parties for free.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=36}} The group launched its first website in 1997: watchtower.org. In 2008, it was replaced with jw.org. Their website is often referenced in their evangelism, with its logo appearing in literature displays and outside Kingdom Halls.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=27}} An increased reliance on electronic media has reduced their printing costs.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=36}} The denomination archives most of its literature online, although certain entries have been changed after publication.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=14}} It also offers a streaming service called JW Broadcasting.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=27}} An animated series aimed at children has been produced called "Become Jehovah's Friend". An application, JW Language, has been designed to facilitate preaching with people who speak different languages.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=36}} A specialized [[Internet-in-a-Box|device]] for use in areas with limited internet access offers downloaded materials relevant to Jehovah's Witnesses.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=37}}

===Disciplinary action===
{{Main|Jehovah's Witnesses congregational discipline}}

Jehovah's Witnesses require individuals to be baptized by the denomination in order to be subject to their disciplinary procedures.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=38}} The denomination does not tolerate dissent over doctrines and practices;{{sfn|Beckford|1975|pages=89, 95, 103, 120, 204, 221}} members who openly disagree with the group's teachings are expelled, [[Shunning|shunned]],<ref name="Muramoto" /> and condemned as [[apostate]]s who are "mentally diseased".<ref name="Holden163" />{{sfn|Franz|2007|page=358}} Some adherents "fade" and stop attending meetings without being formally subjected to the group's disciplinary procedures,{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=13}} although some former members have still experienced shunning through this method.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ransom |first1=Heather |last2=Monk |first2=Rebecca |last3=Reim |first3=Derek |title=Grieving the Living: The Social Death of Former Jehovah's Witnesses |journal=Journal of Religion and Health |date=2022 |volume=61 |issue=3 |pages=2458–2480|doi=10.1007/s10943-020-01156-8 |pmid=33469793 |pmc=9142413 }}</ref>

Members accused of persistent wrongdoing are brought to the attention of the elders who will then evaluate possible consequences. Members who have violated the group's standards—for example, dating a non-member—but not otherwise committed a serious sin may be "[[Jehovah's Witnesses congregational discipline#Marking|marked]]".{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=38}} Congregation members who are aware of another member's errant behaviour are advised to limit social contact with the marked individual.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=39}} Elders may decide to form a committee in cases involving serious sin, which may result in the member being reproved or shunned. This process requires three elders to meet with the accused.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=39}} These cases usually involve sexual misconduct<ref name="alternative"/>{{sfn|Beckford|1975|pages=54–55}} or apostasy.{{sfn|Penton|1997|pages=106–108}} Other serious sins involve accepting blood transfusions (which does not require a judicial committee),{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=23}} smoking,{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=23}} using recreational drugs,{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=23}} divorce (unless a spouse committed adultery),{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=106}} celebration of holidays{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|pages=96}} or birthdays,{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=97}} abortion (which is considered murder),<ref name="holdenmorals" >{{harvnb|Holden|2002|pages=26–27, 173}}</ref> and political activities such as voting in elections.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=89}} Procedures related to congregational discipline are primarily described in the book, ''Shepherd the Flock of God'', provided only to elders.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Bradley |first1=Anusha |title=The rules and culture that keep child sex offenders hidden from followers of the Jehovah's Witness faith |url=https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/in-depth/495876/the-rules-and-culture-that-keep-child-sex-offenders-hidden-from-followers-of-the-jehovah-s-witness-faith |website=[[RNZ]] |date=August 16, 2023 |access-date=July 3, 2024}}</ref> People who formally leave Jehovah's Witnesses are considered to be ''disassociated'' and are also shunned.{{sfn|Chryssides|2008|page=42}} Jehovah's Witnesses can also be disassociated for accepting a blood transfusion.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=23}}

The practice of shunning may serve to deter other members from dissident behavior.<ref name="Holden163">{{harvnb|Holden|2002|page=163}}</ref> Shunning also helps maintain a "uniformity of belief".{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=13}} Shunned individuals may experience [[suicidal ideation]] and often struggle with feelings of low [[self esteem]], shame, and guilt.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Friedson |first1=Meredith |title=Psychotherapy and the Fundamentalist Client: The Aims and Challenges of Treating Jehovah's Witnesses |journal=Journal of Religion and Health |date=2015 |volume=54 |issue=2 |pages=693–712|doi=10.1007/s10943-014-9946-8 |pmid=25261980 }}</ref><ref name="Ransom"/> Former members may experience significant mental distress as a result of being shunned<ref name="Ransom"/> and some seek reinstatement to maintain contact with their friends and family.<ref name="Grendele"/> Former members may also experience [[ambiguous loss]] or [[panic attack]]s.<ref name="Grendele"/> Expelled individuals may eventually be reinstated to the congregation if deemed repentant by congregation elders, and some seek reinstatement to maintain contact with their friends and family.<ref name="Grendele"/> Reinstatement can be a long process, which may be mentally and emotionally draining.<ref name="Grendele" /> Funerals for expelled members may not be performed at Kingdom Halls.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=109}}

Baptized children are also subject to the same moral standards and consequences for failing to comply.<ref name="RNS">{{cite web |last1=Post |first1=Kathryn |title=Jehovah's Witnesses go to trial against Norway after state registration is revoked |url=https://religionnews.com/2024/01/16/jehovahs-witnesses-go-to-trial-against-norway-after-state-registration-is-revoked/ |website=RNS |date=January 16, 2024 |access-date=April 14, 2024}}</ref> They are allowed to stay with their families until reaching the [[age of majority]].{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=40}} Jehovah's Witnesses lost state funding as a religious community in [[Norway]] because of its shunning policy, with the country concluding that shunning, particularly of children, constitutes psychological violence.<ref name="RNS"/> Subsequently, the group made some changes to its shunning policy in 2024; individuals may offer "simple greetings" to shunned members instead of completely avoiding them<ref name="CNE"/> if the individual is not deemed to be an apostate.<ref name="2024 GB update #2">{{cite AV media|title=2024 Governing Body update #2|url=https://www.jw.org/en/news/region/global/2024-Governing-Body-Update-2/|publisher=WatchTower Bible and Tract Society|access-date=April 11, 2024|time=13:12}}</ref> As of 2024, two elders may have a more informal meeting with a minor who is considered to have committed a "serious sin" along with his or her parents before deciding whether a formal committee meeting is required.<ref>{{cite magazine|magazine=The Watchtower|date=August 2024|page=25|title=Responding to Sin With Love and Mercy|publisher=Watch Tower Society}}</ref> Parents are also no longer prohibited from attending judicial committees with minors.<ref name="CNE">{{cite web |last1=van Vlastuin |first1=Evert |title=Jehovah's Witnesses ease shunning rules after blow in Oslo court |url=https://cne.news/article/4220-jehovahs-witnesses-ease-shunning-rules-after-blow-in-oslo-court |website=CNE |access-date=August 23, 2024}}</ref>

===Separateness===
{{See also|Sociological classifications of religious movements}}
Jehovah's Witnesses believe that the Bible condemns mixing religions, on the basis that there can only be one truth from God, and therefore reject interfaith and ecumenical movements.<ref>{{harvnb|Beckford|1975|page=202}}.</ref> They believe that only Jehovah's Witnesses represent true Christianity and that other denominations do not meet God's requirements;{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|pages=57–58}} all other Christian denominations (collectively referred to as "Christendom") along with all other religions are considered "false religion".{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=75}} Jehovah's Witnesses are taught that it is vital to remain "separate from the world." Their literature defines the "world" as "the mass of mankind apart from Jehovah's approved servants" and teach that it is morally contaminated and ruled by Satan.<ref>{{harvnb|Holden|2002|page=12}}</ref> Jehovah's Witnesses are taught that association with "worldly" people presents a danger to their faith.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Bryan R. Wilson |issue=2|journal=Journal of the British Association for the Study of Religions|title=The Persistence of Sects|volume=1 |year=1993}}</ref> 

For many years, the Watch Tower Society has stated that secondary education is "spiritually dangerous" as it requires extended association with those outside the group. The denomination has also presented further education as unnecessary in view of their belief that Armageddon is imminent.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ploeg |first1=Luke |title=Lack Of Education Leads To Lost Dreams And Low Income For Many Jehovah's Witnesses |url=https://www.npr.org/2017/02/19/510585965/poor-education-leads-to-lost-dreams-and-low-income-for-many-jehovahs-witnesses |website=NPR |date=February 19, 2017 |access-date=September 23, 2022}}</ref> [[Vocational school|Trade schools]] are suggested as an alternative.<ref>{{harvnb|Chryssides|2008|page=47}}.</ref> Adolescent Jehovah's Witnesses are also encouraged to become Bethelites.<ref name="Ingersoll">{{cite journal |last1=Ingersoll-Wood |first1=Carrie |title=The Educational Identity Formation of Jehovah's Witnesses |journal=Religion & Education |date=August 12, 2022 |volume=49 |issue=3 |pages=310–338 |doi=10.1080/15507394.2022.2102875 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15507394.2022.2102875 |access-date=July 15, 2025|doi-access=free }}</ref> In 2025, the view of higher education was adjusted, with a statement that, "While there are dangers involved in pursuing certain forms of education, basically, whether to obtain additional education or not is a matter for personal decision," and that, "no Christian—including the elders—should judge a fellow Christian's personal decision on this matter."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jw.org/en/news/region/global/2025-Governing-Body-Update-5/|title=2025 Governing Body Update #5|publisher=Watch Tower Society}}</ref>

Jehovah's Witnesses do not celebrate religious holidays such as Christmas and Easter, nor do they observe birthdays, national holidays, or other celebrations they consider to honor people other than Jesus. They believe that these and many other customs have pagan origins or reflect nationalistic spirit. Members are told that spontaneous giving at other times can help their children to not feel deprived of birthdays or other celebrations.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|pages=93–98}} Wedding anniversaries are allowed.{{sfn|Chryssides|2019|page=154}} Jehovah's Witnesses are not permitted to work in industries associated with the military and refuse national military service, which in some countries may result in their arrest and imprisonment.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schroeder |first1=Judah |title=The Role of Jehovah's Witnesses in the Emergent Right of Conscientious Objection to Military Service in International Law |journal=Kirchliche Zeitgeschichte |date=2011 |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=169–206|doi=10.13109/kize.2011.24.1.169 }}</ref> They also refuse to salute flags or participate in patriotic activities.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=75}} Adherents see themselves as a worldwide brotherhood that transcends national boundaries and ethnic loyalties.<ref>{{cite journal|first=Gene|last=Owens|date=September 1, 1997|journal=Nieman Reports|title=Trials of a Jehovah's Witness. (The Faith of Journalists)}}</ref> 

Jehovah's Witnesses are often viewed as being without agency or [[brainwashing|brainwashed]] by the anti-cult movement.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Beaman |first1=Lori |title=Defining Harm: Religious Freedom and the Limits of the Law |page=14|date=2008 |publisher=UBC Press |isbn=978-0-7748-1429-4}}</ref> Andrew Holden believes that most members who join millenarian movements such as Jehovah's Witnesses have made an informed choice,{{sfn|Holden|2002|pages=x, 7}} but that defectors "are seldom allowed a dignified exit",<ref name="Holden163" /> and describes the administration as [[autocracy|autocratic]].{{sfn|Holden|2002|page=22}} Sociologist [[Rodney Stark]] believes that Jehovah's Witness leaders are "not always very democratic" and that members "are expected to conform to rather strict standards," but adds that "enforcement tends to be very informal, sustained by the close bonds of friendship within the group", and that members see themselves as "part of the power structure rather than subject to it."<ref name="Stark"/> 

After the publication in 1984 of ''[[The Elementary Forms of New Religious Life]]'', academics began to describe various new religious movements as either ''world-affirming'', ''world-accommodating'', or ''world-rejecting''. Jehovah's Witnesses were labelled as ''world-rejecting''.{{sfn|Chu|Peltonen|2025}} Sociologist [[Bryan R. Wilson]] believed that Jehovah's Witnesses conflict with society at large, impose "tests of merit on would-be members", have strict disciplinary procedures, and expect absolute commitment.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Wilson |first=Bryan R. |year=1993 |title=The Persistence of Sects |journal=Journal of the British Association for the Study of Religions |volume=1 |issue=2}}</ref> Sociologist Ronald Lawson has suggested that the group's intellectual and organizational isolation, coupled with the intense indoctrination of adherents, rigid internal discipline, and considerable persecution, has contributed to the consistency of its sense of urgency in its apocalyptic message.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Lawson |first=Ronald |year=1995 |title=Sect-state relations: Accounting for the differing trajectories of Seventh-Day Adventists and Jehovah's Witnesses |journal=Sociology of Religion |volume=56 |issue=4 |pages=351–377 |doi=10.2307/3712195 |jstor=3712195}}</ref>

Alan Rogerson describes the group's leadership as [[totalitarian]],{{sfn|Rogerson|1969|page=50}} while historian {{ill|James Irvin Lichti|de}} rejects this interpretation.<ref>{{cite book|publisher=Routledge|title=The Routledge History of the Holocaust|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vsrJLASVC3QC&pg=359|year=2010|isbn=9781136870606}}</ref> [[James A. Beckford]], a sociologist of religion, classified the group's organizational structure as ''totalizing'', with assertive leadership, specific and narrow objectives, control over competing demands on members' time and energy, and control over the quality of new members. Other characteristics of the classification include likelihood of friction with secular authorities, reluctance to cooperate with other religious organizations, a high rate of membership turnover, a low rate of doctrinal change, and strict uniformity of beliefs among members.<ref>{{harvnb|Beckford|1975|pages=92, 98–100}}</ref> Beckford also identified the group's chief characteristics as ''historicism'' (identifying historical events as relating to the outworking of God's purpose), ''absolutism'' (conviction that Jehovah's Witness leaders dispense absolute truth), ''activism'' (capacity to motivate members to perform missionary tasks), ''rationalism'' (conviction that Witness doctrines have a rational basis devoid of mystery), ''authoritarianism'' (rigid presentation of regulations without the opportunity for criticism) and ''world indifference'' (rejection of certain secular requirements and medical treatments).<ref>{{harvnb|Beckford|1975|pages=196–207}}</ref> 

Former members [[Heather Botting]] and [[Gary Botting]] compare the cultural paradigms of the denomination to [[George Orwell]]'s ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]''.{{sfn|Botting|Botting|1984|p={{page needed|date=May 2022}}}} Critics believe that by disparaging individual decision-making, the group's leaders cultivate a system of unquestioning obedience<ref name="Bevindependent"/><ref>{{harvnb|Beckford|1975|pages=204, 221}}.</ref> in which members abrogate responsibility and rights over their personal lives.<ref>{{harvnb|Botting|Botting|1984|page=90}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Rogerson|1969|page=178}}.</ref> Critics also accuse the group's leaders of exercising "intellectual dominance" over adherents,<ref>{{cite book |author=Beverley |first=James A. |title=Crisis of Allegiance |publisher=Welch Publishing Company |year=1986 |isbn=0-920413-37-4 |location=Burlington, Ontario |pages=25–26, 101}}</ref> controlling information,{{sfn|Holden|2002|page=153}}<ref>{{harvnb|Rogerson|1969|page=2}}.</ref> and creating "mental isolation", which former Governing Body member Raymond Franz argued were all elements of mind control.{{sfn|Franz|2007|loc="Chapter 12"}} Some Jehovah's Witnesses describe themselves to academics as "Physically In, Mentally Out" (PIMO); these individuals privately question certain doctrine but remain inside the organization to maintain contact with their friends and family.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=13}}

===Rejection of blood transfusions===
{{Main|Jehovah's Witnesses and blood transfusions}}

Jehovah's Witnesses typically refuse [[blood transfusion]]s, which they consider a violation of God's law based on their interpretation of [[Acts 15|Acts&nbsp;15]]:28,&nbsp;29 and other scriptures.{{sfn|Penton|1997|page=i}}{{sfn|Holden|2002|page=91}} This prohibition has existed since 1945.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=23}} They also do not eat [[Blood as food|blood-based foods]], such as [[blood sausage]].{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=87}} Since 1961, acceptance of a blood transfusion without subsequent repentance has been grounds for expulsion from the group.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Muramoto, O.|date=January 6, 2001|journal=BMJ|volume=322|issue=7277 |pages=37–39|doi=10.1136/bmj.322.7277.37|pmc=1119307 |pmid=11141155|title=Bioethical aspects of the recent changes in the policy of refusal of blood by Jehovah's Witnesses}}</ref> Members are directed to refuse blood transfusions, even in "a life-or-death situation".<ref>{{cite book|first=R. M.|last=Bowman|author2-link=E. Calvin Beisner|author2=Beisner, E. C.|author3=Ehrenborg, T. |isbn=978-0-310-70411-9|page=13|publisher=Zondervan|title=Jehovah's Witnesses |url=https://archive.org/details/jehovahswitnesse00bowm_0/page/13|year=1995}}</ref>{{sfn|Botting|Botting|1984|pages=29–30}} Their literature implies that there is a blood alternative for every medical situation and "emphasizes the danger of blood transfusions".<ref name="Muramoto"/> Jehovah's Witnesses do not accept the transfusion of "whole blood, packed red cells, platelets, white cells or plasma". [[Autologous blood donation]], where one's blood is stored for later use, is also considered unacceptable.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gohel |first1=MS |last2=Bulbaria |first2=RA |last3=Slim |first3=FJ |last4=Poskitt |first4=KR |last5=Whyman |first5=MR |title=How to approach major surgery where patients refuse blood transfusion (including Jehovah's Witnesses) |journal= Annals of the Royal College of Surgeons of England|date=2005 |volume=87 |issue=1 |pages=3–14 |doi=10.1308/1478708051414|doi-broken-date=July 1, 2025 |pmid=15720900 |pmc=1963852 }}</ref> Members may accept some [[Blood plasma fractionation|blood plasma fractions]] at their own discretion.<ref>{{cite journal|access-date=December 30, 2008|last1=Sniesinski|date=April 1, 2007|display-authors=etal|doi=10.1213/01.ane.0000250913.45299.f3|first2=EP|first3=JH|first4=F|first5=KA|issue=4|journal=Anesthesia & Analgesia|last2=Chen|last3=Levy|last4=Szlam|last5=Tanaka|pages=763–5|pmid=17377078|s2cid=45882634|title=Coagulopathy After Cardiopulmonary Bypass in Jehovah's Witness Patients: Management of Two Cases Using Fractionated Components and Factor VIIa|url=http://www.freeminds.org/doctrine/sniecinski_analgesia2.pdf|volume=104|archive-date=December 18, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081218110826/http://www.freeminds.org/doctrine/sniecinski_analgesia2.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Some Jehovah's Witnesses may accept prohibited blood products if [[medical confidentiality]] is upheld,<ref name="Annals">{{cite journal |last1=Crowe |first1=Elizabeth |last2=DiSimone |first2=Robert |title=When blood transfusion is not an option owing to religious beliefs |url=https://aob.amegroups.org/article/view/6723/html |journal=Annals of Blood |date=2022 |volume=7 |page=22 |doi=10.21037/aob-21-58 |doi-access=free |access-date=July 2, 2024}}</ref> although Jehovah's Witnesses who work in a hospital may break such confidentiality.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Muramoto |first1=Osamu |title=Bioethical aspects of the recent changes in the policy of refusal of blood by Jehovah's Witnesses |journal=BMJ |date=2001 |volume=7277 |issue=322 |pages=37–39 |doi=10.1136/bmj.322.7277.37 |pmid=11141155 |quote="This religion has a history of tacitly instructing its members to breach medical confidentiality when other members are non-compliant with the religion's medical policy. This tradition was not changed in the recent directive. As long as unsolicited visitors and hospital workers who belong to the religion closely monitor the blood based treatment of patients who are Jehovah's Witnesses, there remains a possibility that the patient will be forced to disassociate from the religion because of a breach of confidentiality."|pmc=1119307 }}</ref> Jehovah's Witness patients are generally open to non-blood alternative treatments, even if they are less effective.<ref name="Annals"/>

Courts have intervened in life-threatening situations involving children that require blood transfusions to allow the treatment to take place.<ref>{{cite web |title=Jehovah's Witness, 14, ordered to receive blood transfusion despite beliefs |url=https://www.cbc.ca/1.4299992 |website=CBC News |access-date=July 2, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Conti |first1=Adelaide |last2=Capasso |first2=Emanuele |last3=Casella |first3=Claudia |last4=Fedeli |first4=Piergiorgio |last5=Salzano |first5=Francesco |last6=Policino |first6=Fabio |last7=Terracciano |first7=Lucia |last8=Delbon |first8=Paola |title=Blood Transfusion in Children: The Refusal of Jehovah's Witness Parents' |journal=Open Medicine |date=2018 |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=101–104 |doi=10.1515/med-2018-0016 |pmid=29666843 |pmc=5900417 |hdl=11581/430378 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Courts may allow [[mature minor]]s to reject blood transfusions based on their beliefs.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Burbank |first1=Luke |title=Jehovah's Witness Kid Dies After Refusing Medical Treatment |url=https://www.npr.org/2007/11/30/16763280/jehovahs-witness-kid-dies-after-refusing-medical-treatment |website=NPR |date=November 30, 2007 |access-date=July 2, 2024}}</ref> The May 22, 1994, issue of ''Awake!'' entitled ''Youths Who Put God First'' featured children who refused blood transfusions and subsequently died.{{sfn|Knox|2018|page=175}}

The Watch Tower Society provides pre-formatted [[Power of attorney#Durable power of attorney|durable power of attorney]] documents prohibiting major blood components, in which members can specify which allowable fractions and treatments they will accept.<ref>{{cite book|title=Durable Power of Attorney form|publisher=Watch Tower Society|date=January 2001|page=1}} Examples of permitted fractions are: [[Interferon]], [http://www.noblood.org/wiki/Immune_Serum_Globulins Immune Serum Globulins] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080106083752/http://www.noblood.org/wiki/Immune_Serum_Globulins|date=January 6, 2008 }} and [[Factor VIII]]; preparations made from [[Hemoglobin]] such as [http://www.noblood.org/wiki/Polyheme PolyHeme] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080723234940/http://www.noblood.org/wiki/Polyheme|date=July 23, 2008 }} and [[Hemopure]]. Examples of permitted procedures involving the medical use of one's own blood include: [http://www.noblood.org/wiki/Intraoperative_blood_salvage cell salvage] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080706171315/http://www.noblood.org/wiki/Intraoperative_blood_salvage|date=July 6, 2008 }}, [http://www.noblood.org/wiki/Acute_Normovolemic_Hemodilution hemodilution] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080907143504/http://noblood.org/wiki/Acute_Normovolemic_Hemodilution|date=September 7, 2008 }}, [[heart lung machine]], [[Kidney dialysis|dialysis]], [http://www.noblood.org/wiki/Epidural_Blood_Patch epidural blood patch] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080905212647/http://www.noblood.org/wiki/Epidural_Blood_Patch|date=September 5, 2008 }}, [[plasmapheresis]], [http://www.noblood.org/wiki/Blood_cell_scintigraphy blood labeling or tagging] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080106084037/http://www.noblood.org/wiki/Blood_cell_scintigraphy|date=January 6, 2008 }} and [http://www.noblood.org/wiki/Platelet_Gel platelet gel] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080106083757/http://www.noblood.org/wiki/Platelet_Gel|date=January 6, 2008 }} ([[autologous]])</ref> The denomination has established [[Jehovah's Witnesses and blood transfusions#Hospital Liaison Committees|Hospital Liaison Committees]] as a cooperative arrangement between individual Jehovah's Witness members and medical professionals and hospitals to provide information about bloodless treatment options.<ref>{{cite news |author=Archer |first=Kim |date=May 15, 2007 |title=Jehovah's Witness liaisons help surgeons adapt |url=http://www.tulsaworld.com/news/article.aspx?articleID=070515_1_A9_hThef38217 |newspaper=Tulsa World}}</ref> Patients who accept certain blood products in the committee's presence are deemed to have disassociated and are shunned.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Smith |first1=Stephen |title=Jehovah's Witnesses defend hospital visits that push for bloodless treatment |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/montreal/jehovahs-witnesses-childbirth-quebec-hospital-1.3816979 |website=[[CBC News]] |access-date=May 19, 2023}}</ref> The [[National Secular Society]] advocates against hospitals partnering with hospital liaison committees due to medical [[coercion]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Rethink relations with Jehovah's Witnesses committees, NSS urges NHS |url=https://www.secularism.org.uk/news/2020/09/rethink-relations-with-jehovahs-witnesses-committees-nss-urges-nhs |website=National Secular Society |date=September 24, 2020 |access-date=July 2, 2024}}</ref>

===Handling of sexual abuse cases===
{{Main|Jehovah's Witnesses' handling of child sex abuse}}

[[File:CS_54_Jehovah_PublicHearing.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Case study of Jehovah's Witnesses in Australia's [[Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse]]]]
Jehovah's Witnesses have been accused of having policies and culture that help to conceal cases of sexual abuse within the organization.<ref name="ousted">{{cite news|last=Goodstein|first=Laurie|title=Ousted members say Jehovah's Witnesses' policy on abuse hides offenses|newspaper=The New York Times|date=August 11, 2002|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/08/11/us/ousted-members-say-jehovah-s-witnesses-policy-on-abuse-hides-offenses.html|access-date=October 1, 2015}}</ref> When investigating cases of child abuse, elders are instructed to immediately call the organization's headquarters or branch office. The group states that this requirement is to ensure compliance with the law.<ref name="Bradley"/> An investigation by the [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]] determined that elders were asked questions such as, "How many elders believe the victim is to blame or willingly participated in the act?"<ref>{{cite web |title=Jehovah's Witnesses' process for handling child sex abuse allegations keeps authorities in the dark |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/montreal/jehovah-witnesses-abuse-1.3874884 |website=CBC News |access-date=December 7, 2024}}</ref> Jehovah's Witnesses have been criticized for the "two witness rule" for [[#Disciplinary action|congregational discipline]], based on an application of scriptures in Deuteronomy 19:15 and Matthew 18:15–17, which requires sexual abuse to be substantiated by secondary evidence if the accused person denies wrongdoing.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.childabuseroyalcommission.gov.au/sites/default/files/file-list/Case%20Study%2029%20-%20Transcript%20-%20Jehovahs%20Witnesses%20-%20Day%20152%20-%2004082015.pdf|title=Public Hearing – Case Study 29 (Day 152) |pages=67, 72|website=Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse, Australia}}</ref><ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.childabuseroyalcommission.gov.au/sites/default/files/file-list/Case%20Study%2029%20-%20Transcript%20-%20Jehovahs%20Witnesses%20-%20Day%20155%20-%2014082015.pdf|title=Public Hearing – Case Study 29 (Day 155) |pages=44, 45|website=Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse, Australia}}</ref> In cases where corroboration is lacking, the Watch Tower Society's instruction is that "the elders will leave the matter in Jehovah's hands".<ref name="Bradley">{{cite web |last1=Bradley |first1=Amanda |title=The rules and culture that keep child sex offenders hidden from followers of the Jehovah's Witness faith |url=https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/national/495876/the-rules-and-culture-that-keep-child-sex-offenders-hidden-from-followers-of-the-jehovah-s-witness-faith |website=RNZ |date=August 16, 2023 |access-date=December 7, 2024}}</ref> A former member has said that the policy effectively requires that there be third-party witness to an act of molestation, "which is an impossibility".<ref name="NBC">{{cite news |last1=Myers |first1=Lisa |author-link1=Lisa Myers |last2=Greenberg |first2=Richard |date=November 21, 2007 |title=New evidence in Jehovah's Witness allegations |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna21917798 |work=[[NBC News]] |location=New York, NY}}</ref> Jehovah's Witnesses maintain a database of confidential files in regards to child abuse,<ref>{{cite web |title=Jehovah's Witness organisation has secret database of child sex abuse claims against members |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2022/06/30/jehovahs-witness-organisation-has-secret-database-child-sex/ |website=The Telegraph |date=June 30, 2022 |access-date=December 15, 2024 |last1=Team |first1=Investigations |last2=Barnes |first2=Sophie |last3=Rushton |first3=Katherine |last4=Newell |first4=Claire |last5=Eastham |first5=Janet |last6=Leather |first6=Jack }}</ref> which are marked as "Do Not Destroy". An elder in New Zealand was tasked with destroying "personal notes" in their database when the organization was under investigation for child abuse.<ref>{{cite web |title=Jehovah's Witness elder alleges order to destroy evidence in child sex abuse cases |url=https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/jehovahs-witness-elder-alleges-order-to-destroy-evidence-in-child-sex-abuse-cases/6OAO6IJBANDLLAOE2VXI3DHPXI/ |website=The New Zealand Herald |access-date=December 7, 2024}}</ref> In the United States, the group was fined four-thousand dollars daily (accruing a total of two million dollars) for delaying an order to provide its documentation.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Krawcyzk |first1=Kathryn |title=The Jehovah's Witnesses owe $4,000 every day they don't turn over details of alleged child sex abuse. It's cost them $2 million so far. |url=https://theweek.com/speedreads/737910/jehovahs-witnesses-owe-4000-every-day-dont-turn-over-details-alleged-child-sex-abuse-cost-2-million-far |website=The Week |date=November 16, 2017 |access-date=December 7, 2024}}</ref>

The group's failure to report abuse allegations to authorities has also been criticized.<ref>{{cite news|last=Jones|first=Ciaran|date=June 29, 2014|url=http://www.walesonline.co.uk/news/wales-news/jehovahs-witnesses-destroyed-documents-showing-7340603|title=Jehovah's Witnesses destroyed documents showing child abuse allegations against church elder|publisher=[[Media Wales]]|location=Cardiff, UK|website=Wales Online}}</ref> The Watch Tower Society's policy is that elders inform authorities when required by law to do so, but otherwise leave that up to the victim and their family.<ref>{{cite report|url=https://www.childabuseroyalcommission.gov.au/sites/default/files/file-list/Case%20Study%2029%20-%20Transcript%20-%20Jehovahs%20Witnesses%20-%20Day%20152%20-%2004082015.pdf|title=Public Hearing – Case Study 29 (Day 152)|pages=24–26|website=Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse, Australia}}</ref> In jurisdictions with [[priest–penitent privilege]], confessions of abuse may be considered confidential.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Scolforo |first1=Mark |last2=Smith |first2=Peter |title=Child sex abuse investigation of Jehovah's Witnesses fuels speculation |url=https://apnews.com/article/jehovahs-witnesses-child-abuse-pennsylvania-investigation-c08b543d8b0b69e03d3c2eba08526cf0 |website=Associated Press |date=April 19, 2023 |access-date=December 7, 2024}}</ref> William Bowen, a former Jehovah's Witness elder who established the [[Silentlambs]] organization to assist sex abuse victims in the denomination, has claimed that Witness leaders discourage followers from reporting incidents of sexual misconduct to authorities. Other critics have alleged that the organization is reluctant to alert authorities to protect its "crime-free" reputation.<ref name="ousted" /><ref>{{cite journal |first=Corrie|last=Cutrer|date=March 5, 2001|journal=Christianity Today|title=Witness leaders accused of shielding molesters|url=http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2001/004/11.23.html}}</ref> However, in response to the charge that their policies "protect pedophiles rather than protect the children",<ref name="NBC"/> the organization has maintained that the best way to protect children is to educate parents; they also say they do not sponsor activities that separate children from parents.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.childabuseroyalcommission.gov.au/sites/default/files/file-list/Case%20Study%2029%20-%20Findings%20Report%20-%20Jehovahs%20Witnesses.pdf|title=Report of case study no.29|pages=9, 28 |website=Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse, Australia}}</ref> In court cases in the United Kingdom and the United States, the Watch Tower Society has been found negligent in its protection of children from known sex offenders within the congregation.<ref>{{cite court|litigants=Jane Doe (Candace Conti) v. The Watchtower Bible and Tract Society of New York Incorporated et al.|court=[[California courts of appeal#First District|California Court of Appeal, First Appellate District, Division Three]]|date=April 13, 2015|url=http://www.courts.ca.gov/opinions/archive/A136641.PDF}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Former Jehovah's Witness Takes on Church Over Sex Abuse Allegations |url=https://www.youtube.com/embed/OPcYn4AiwQE?rel=0&autoplay=1 |format=VIDEO|publisher=[[ABC News (United States)|ABC News]] |location=New York, NY|date=March 12, 2015}}</ref> The Society has [[settlement (litigation)|settled]] other child abuse lawsuits out of court, paying $780,000 in one case.<ref name="NBC" /> In 2015, the Australian [[Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse]] found that "there was no evidence before the Royal Commission of the Jehovah's Witness organisation having or not having reported to police any of the 1,006 alleged perpetrators of [[child sexual abuse]] identified by the organisation since 1950."<ref name="ARCReport">{{Cite web|url=https://www.childabuseroyalcommission.gov.au/case-studies/case-study-29-jehovahs-witnesses |title=Case Study 29: Jehovah's Witnesses|date=July 27, 2015|website=Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse}}</ref> The Royal Commission also found that the Watch Tower Society legal department routinely provided incorrect information to elders based on an incorrect understanding of what constitutes a legal obligation to report crimes in Australia.<ref>{{cite report|title=Report of Case Study No. 29|page=62}}</ref><ref>"Case Study 29", Day 153 p.16, 41&mdash;44, ''Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse'', July 2015.]</ref> In 2017, the [[Charity Commission for England and Wales]] began an inquiry into Jehovah's Witnesses' handling of allegations of child sexual abuse in the United Kingdom.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-40719773|title=Jehovah's Witnesses let sex offender interrogate victims|website=BBC News|date=July 26, 2017|author=Michael Buchanan|access-date= November 20, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|access-date=November 20, 2017|date=July 26, 2017|title=Decision: Manchester New Moston Congregation of Jehovah's Witnesses|website=Charity Commission for England and Wales |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/manchester-new-moston-congregation-of-jehovahs-witnesses-inquiry-report/manchester-new-moston-congregation-of-jehovahs-witnesses}}</ref>{{update inline|date=February 2025}} In 2021, Jehovah's Witnesses in Australia agreed to join the nation's [[National Redress Scheme|redress scheme]] for sexual assault survivors to maintain its charity status there.<ref>{{cite web|access-date=May 25, 2021|first1=Rebecca|last1=Gredley|title=Jehovah's Witnesses to join redress scheme|url=https://7news.com.au/politics/jehovahs-witnesses-to-join-redress-scheme-c-2278906|website=7News|date=March 3, 2021 }}</ref>

== Government interactions ==
{{Main|Jehovah's Witnesses and governments|Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses}}

[[File:Jehovas Zeugen - Länder ohne berichtete Aktivitat.png|thumb|upright=1.15|Countries where Jehovah's Witnesses' activities are banned]]
Controversy about various beliefs, doctrines and practices of Jehovah's Witnesses has led to opposition from governments, communities, and other religious groups. Religious commentator Ken Jubber wrote, "Viewed globally, this persecution has been so persistent and of such intensity that it would not be inaccurate to regard Jehovah's Witnesses as the most persecuted group of Christians of the twentieth century."<ref>{{cite journal |first=Ken|last=Jubber |doi=10.1177/003776867702400108|issue=1|journal=Social Compass|pages=121–134|s2cid=143997010|title=The Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses in Southern Africa|volume=24|year=1977}}</ref> Several cases involving Jehovah's Witnesses have been heard by [[List of Supreme Court cases involving Jehovah's Witnesses|Supreme Courts worldwide]].{{sfn|Botting|1993|p={{page needed|date=May 2022}}}} They generally relate to the right to practice their religion, displays of patriotism and military service, and blood transfusions.{{sfn|Richardson|2015|p=286}} Cases in their favor have been heard in the United States, Canada and many European countries.{{sfn|Richardson|2015|p=292}}

[[File:Purple Triangle.JPG|thumb|right|Jehovah's Witness prisoners were identified by purple triangle badges in Nazi concentration camps.]]
In 1933, there were approximately 20,000 Jehovah's Witnesses in [[Nazi Germany]],<ref>{{cite book|first=James|last=Penton|isbn=978-0802086785|page=376|publisher=University of Toronto Press|title=Jehovah's Witnesses and the Third Reich|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/jehovahswitnesse0000pent_f0s7|year=2004}}</ref> of whom about 10,000 were imprisoned. Jehovah's Witnesses suffered [[religious persecution]] by the [[Nazism|Nazis]] because they [[Conscientious objector|refused military service]] and allegiance to Hitler's National Socialist Party.<ref>{{cite journal|first=Jolene|last=Chu|date=September 1, 2004|doi=10.1080/1462352042000265837|issue=3|journal=[[Journal of Genocide Research]]|pages=319–342|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|s2cid=71908533|title=God's things and Caesar's: Jehovah's Witnesses and political neutrality|volume=6}}</ref><ref name="Wrobel 2006">{{cite journal |last=Wrobel|first=Johannes S.|date=August 2006|url=https://www.biblicalstudies.org.uk/pdf/rss/34-2_089.pdf|title=Jehovah's Witnesses in National Socialist concentration camps, 1933–45|journal=Religion, State & Society|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|volume=34|issue=2|pages=89–125|doi=10.1080/09637490600624691|s2cid=145110013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120521084542/https://www.biblicalstudies.org.uk/pdf/rss/34-2_089.pdf|archive-date=May 21, 2012|url-status=live|access-date=October 22, 2020}}</ref> Of those, 2,000 were sent to [[Nazi concentration camps]], where they were identified by [[purple triangle]]s;<ref name="Wrobel 2006"/> as many as 1,200 died, including 250 who were executed.<ref>{{cite book|first=Detlef|last=Garbe|isbn=978-0-299-20794-6|location=Madison, Wisconsin|page=484 |publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|title=Between Resistance and Martyrdom: Jehovah's Witnesses in the Third Reich|year=2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Jehovah's Witnesses |url=http://www.holocaust-trc.org/jehovahs-witnesses/|website=Holocaust Education Foundation}}</ref> They were hanged,{{sfn|Reynaud|Graffard|2001|page=16}} beheaded,{{sfn|Reynaud|Graffard|2001|page=47}}{{sfn|Reynaud|Graffard|2001|page=60}} beaten to death,{{sfn|Reynaud|Graffard|2001|page=72}} or shot dead.{{sfn|Reynaud|Graffard|2001|page=129}} Conditions for Jehovah's Witnesses improved in 1942, when they were increasingly given work details that required little supervision, such as farming, gardening, transportation and unloading goods, while others worked in civilian clothing in a health resort, as housekeepers for Nazi officials, or were given construction and craft tasks at military buildings.{{sfn|Garbe|2008|pp=440–447}} Unlike [[Jews]] and [[Romani people|Romani]], who were persecuted on the basis of their ethnicity, Jehovah's Witnesses could escape persecution and personal harm by signing a document indicating renunciation of their faith, submission to state authority, and support of the German military.<ref name="holocaust-trc.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.holocaust-trc.org/PRJW.htm|title=Persecution and Resistance of Jehovah's Witnesses During the Nazi-Regime|first=Michael|last=Berenbaum}}</ref> Historian [[Sybil Milton]] writes, "their courage and defiance in the face of torture and death punctures the myth of a monolithic Nazi state ruling over docile and submissive subjects."<ref name="BaumelLaquer2001">{{cite book|last1=Laqueur|first1=Walter|last2=Baumel|first2=Judith Tydor|title=The Holocaust encyclopedia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nPbr0XzlTzcC|access-date=April 6, 2011|year=2001|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-08432-0|pages=346–50}}</ref> Jehovah's Witnesses would preach inside the concentration camps,{{sfn|Reynaud|Graffard|2001|page=123}} hold meetings, and smuggle in their religious literature.{{sfn|Reynaud|Graffard|2001|pages=172-173}}

Political and religious animosity toward Jehovah's Witnesses has at times led to [[mob action]] and [[government]] oppression in various countries. Their political neutrality and refusal to serve in the military has led to imprisonment of members who refused conscription during [[World War II]] and other periods of compulsory [[national service]], especially in countries that do not provide [[religious exemption]]s. Their religious activities are banned or restricted in some countries,<ref>{{cite news|title=UN investigator: Rights of minorities to worship undermined|url=https://apnews.com/article/religion-maldives-freedom-of-religion-discrimination-north-korea-16c8581a5a00b5d4f0887e803e8c40dc|work=[[Associated Press]]|date=November 4, 2020}}</ref> including [[China]], [[Russia]], [[Vietnam]], and many [[Muslim world|Muslim-majority countries]].<ref>{{cite web|title=The Global Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses|year=2020|url=https://www.uscirf.gov/sites/default/files/2020%20Issue%20Update%20-%20Jehovahs%20Witnesses.pdf |last1=Morton |first1=Jason |last2=Bakken |first2=Keely |last3=Omer |first3=Mohy |last4=Greenwalt |first4=Patrick |publisher=[[United States Commission on International Religious Freedom]]}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Bibliography of works on Jehovah's Witnesses]]
* [[Criticism of Jehovah's Witnesses]]
* {{anl|List of Supreme Court cases involving Jehovah's Witnesses}}

== Explanatory notes ==
{{Reflist|group=en}}
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last=Beckford|first=James A.|author-link=James A. Beckford|title=The Trumpet of Prophecy: A Sociological Study of Jehovah's Witnesses|publisher=Basil Blackwell|location=Oxford|year=1975|isbn=978-0-631-16310-7}}
* {{cite book |surname=Bergman |given=Jerry |year=1995 |chapter=The Adventist and Jehovah's Witness Branch of Protestantism |editor-surname=Miller |editor-given=Timothy |editor-link=Timothy Miller |title=America's Alternative Religions |publisher=SUNY Press |place=Albany, NY |pages=33–46 |isbn=978-0-7914-2397-4 |chapter-url={{Google books|id=og_u0Re1uwUC|plainurl=y|page=33|keywords=|text=}} |url={{Google books|id=og_u0Re1uwUC|plainurl=y}} |url-status=live |archive-date=July 24, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200724210513/https://books.google.com/books?id=og_u0Re1uwUC}}
* {{cite book |first=Gary|last=Botting|author-link=Gary Botting |title=Fundamental Freedoms and Jehovah's Witnesses|publisher=University of Calgary Press|year=1993 |isbn=978-1-895176-06-3}}
* {{cite book|first1=Heather|first2=Gary|last1=Botting|last2=Botting |author2-link=Gary Botting |title=The Orwellian World of Jehovah's Witnesses|url=https://archive.org/details/orwellianworldof0000bott|url-access=registration |publisher=University of Toronto Press|year=1984 |isbn=978-0-8020-6545-2}}
* {{cite book |first=George D. |last=Chryssides |author-link=George D. Chryssides |title=Historical Dictionary of Jehovah's Witnesses |place=Lanham, Md |publisher=Scarecrow Press |year=2008 |url={{Google books|id=Xx6nUwZzeCsC|plainurl=y|page=}} |isbn=978-0-8108-6074-2}}
* {{cite book|author-mask=3|first=George D.|last=Chryssides |author-link=George Chryssides|title=Jehovah's Witnesses: Continuity and Change |series=Ashgate New Religions |place=Farnham, Surrey |publisher=Ashgate Publishing |year=2016a |url={{Google books|id=jDOoDQAAQBAJ|plainurl=y|page=}} |isbn=9781409456087}}
* {{cite book|author-mask=3|first=George D.|last=Chryssides|author-link=George Chryssides|chapter=Jehovah’s Witnesses: Anticipating Armageddon|pages=422–440|editor-last=Hunt|editor-first=Stephen J.|publisher=Brill|year=2016b|isbn=978-90-04-31078-0|title=Handbook of Global Contemporary Christianity: Movements, Institutions, and Allegiance}}
* {{cite book|author-mask=3|author-last=Chryssides|author-first=George D.|date=2019|chapter='Be not conformed' - A historical survey of the Watch Tower Society's relationship with society|editor1-last=Besier|editor1-first=Gerhard|editor-link1=Gerhard Besier|editor2-last=Huhta|editor2-first=Ilkka|title=Religious Freedom: Its Confirmation and Violation During the 20th and 21st Centuries. 18. Jahrgang (2017), Heft 1+2|volume=18|series=Issue 1–2 de Religion – Staat – Gesellschaft – Zeitsch, ISSN 1438-955X / Religion, Staat, Gesellschaft : Zeitschrift für Glaubensformen und Weltanschauungen|publisher=LIT Verlag Münster|isbn=9783643997456|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=55V9DwAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite book |author-mask=3|first=George D.|last=Chryssides |author-link=George Chryssides|title=Jehovah's Witnesses: A New Introduction |year=2022 |place= |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |isbn=978-1-3501-9089-4}}
*{{cite book |last1=Chu |first1=Jolene |last2=Peltonen |first2=Ollimatti |date=2025 |title=Jehovah's Witnesses |series=Elements in New Religious Movements |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/9781009375191 |isbn=978-1-009-37519-1 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/elements/jehovahs-witnesses/605AED05C9FA13DC68BB74FE3D2C651D}}
* {{cite book |last=Crompton|first=Robert |title=Counting the Days to Armageddon |publisher=James Clarke & Co |place=Cambridge |year=1996 |isbn=0-227-67939-3}}
* {{cite book|last=Franz|first=Raymond|author-link=Raymond Franz |title=In Search of Christian Freedom |publisher=Commentary Press|year=2007 |isbn=978-0-914675-16-7}} {{ISBN|978-0-914675-17-4}}
* {{cite book|first=Anthony A.|last=Hoekema|author-link=Anthony A. Hoekema|isbn=978-0-8028-3117-0|location=Grand Rapids, Michigan|publisher=William B. Eerdmans|title=The Four Major Cults|year=1963}}
* {{cite book|last=Holden|first=Andrew |title=Jehovah's Witnesses: Portrait of a Contemporary Religious Movement |url=https://archive.org/details/jehovahswitnesse00andr|url-access=registration|publisher=Routledge |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-415-26610-9}}
* {{cite book|last=Penton|first=M. James |author-link=James Penton |title=Apocalypse Delayed: The Story of Jehovah's Witnesses |publisher=University of Toronto Press|year=1997|isbn=978-0-8020-7973-2}}
* {{cite book|last=Richardson|first=James T.|author-link=James T. Richardson|year=2015|chapter=In Defense of Religious Rights: Jehovah's Witness Legal Cases around the World|title=Handbook of Global Contemporary Christianity|pages=285–307|isbn=978-90-04-29102-7|editor-last=Hunt|editor-first=Stephen J.|publisher=Brill}}
* {{cite book|last=Rogerson|first=Alan|title=Millions Now Living Will Never Die |place=London |publisher=Constable & Co |year=1969 |isbn=978-0094559400}}
* {{cite book|last1=Reynaud|first1=Michel|last2=Graffard|first2=Sylvie|title=The Jehovah's Witnesses and the Nazis: Persecution, Deportation and Murder|publisher=Cooper Square Press|year=2001|isbn=0-8154-1076-X}}
* {{cite book|last1=Knox|first1=Zoe|title=Jehovah's Witnesses and the Secular World: From the 1870s to the Present|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2018|place=London|isbn=978-1-137-39604-4}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* {{Official website|https://www.jw.org/en/}}
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/witnesses/ BBC Religions: Jehovah's Witnesses]
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-28166192 Jehovah's Witnesses new method]{{snd}}''BBC News Magazine'' article

{{Jehovah's Witnesses navbox|state=collapsed}}
{{Christianity footer}}
{{New Religious Movements}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Jehovah's Witnesses| ]]
[[Category:Apocalyptic groups]]
[[Category:Bible Student movement]]
[[Category:Christian groups with annihilationist beliefs]]
[[Category:Christian organizations established in 1931]]
[[Category:Nontrinitarian denominations]]
[[Category:Premillennialism]]
[[Category:Christian denominations founded in the United States]]
[[Category:Religious identity]]
[[Category:Restorationism (Christianity)]]
[[Category:Organizations designated as extremist by Russia]]
[[Category:New religious movements established in the 1930s]]
[[Category:Religious organizations based in New York (state)]]