Editing Indonesia

{{Short description|Country in Southeast Asia and Oceania}}
{{About|the country}}
{{Pp-vandalism|small=yes}}
{{Pp-move}}
{{Use British English|date=March 2026}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2025}}
{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = Republic of Indonesia
| common_name = Indonesia
| native_name = {{nativename|id|Republik Indonesia}}
| image_flag = Flag of Indonesia.svg
| image_coat = National emblem of Indonesia Garuda Pancasila.svg
| symbol_type = Emblem
| national_motto = {{native phrase|kaw|[[Bhinneka Tunggal Ika]]|paren=omit}} ([[Old Javanese]])<br />"Unity in Diversity"
| other_symbol = {{IAST|[[Pancasila (politics)|Pancasila]]}} ([[Sanskrit]])<br />"The Five Principles"
| other_symbol_type = National ideology and philosophy:
| national_anthem = {{lang|id|[[Indonesia Raya]]}}<br />"Great Indonesia"<br /><div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;">[[File:Indonesia Raya instrumental.ogg]]</div>
| image_map = {{Switcher|[[File:Indonesia (orthographic projection).svg|frameless]]|Show globe|[[File:Location Indonesia ASEAN.svg|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Show ASEAN|default=1}}
| map_caption = {{map caption|location_color= green|region=[[Southeast Asia]] and [[Oceania]]|region_color= none}}
| capital = [[Jakarta]] 
| coordinates = {{Coord|6|10|S|106|49|E|type:city_region:ID-JK}}
| largest_city = capital
| official_languages = [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]]<!--Note: Not just the official language, but also the national language (bahasa pemersatu)-->
| demonym = [[Indonesians|Indonesian]]
| languages_type = '''Indigenous languages'''
| languages_sub = yes
| languages = [[Languages of Indonesia|718 languages]]{{efn|Excludes dialects and subdialects}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://petabahasa.kemdikbud.go.id/|title=Language and Language Map|publisher=Ministry of Education and Culture (Kemdikbud)|language=id|access-date=18 August 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260103100409/https://petabahasa.kemdikbud.go.id/|archive-date=3 January 2026}}</ref>
| languages2_type = Writing system
| languages2 = [[Latin script|Latin]] (predominantly)<br />{{collapsible list
|title = Regional
| [[Balinese script|Balinese]]
| [[Batak script|Batak]]
| [[Javanese script|Javanese]]
| [[Jawi script|Jawi]]-[[Pegon script|Pegon]]
| [[Lontara script|Lontara]]
| [[Makasar script|Makasar]]
| [[Sundanese script|Sundanese]]
| [[Ulu scripts|Ulu]]
}}
| ethnic_groups_year = 2010
| ethnic_groups = {{ubl
| 41.0% [[Javanese people|Javanese]]
| 17.4% [[Sundanese people|Sundanese]]
| 3.7% [[Malay Indonesians|Malay]]
| 3.6% [[Batak]]
| 3.0% [[Madurese people|Madurese]]
| 31.3% others ([[Ethnic groups in Indonesia|600+ ethnic groups]])
}}
| religion_year = 2024
| religion = {{tree list}}
* 87.1% [[Islam in Indonesia|Islam]]
* 10.45% [[Christianity in Indonesia|Christianity]]
** 7.38% [[Protestantism in Indonesia|Protestantism]]
** 3.07% [[Catholicism in Indonesia|Catholicism]]
* 1.7% [[Hinduism in Indonesia|Hinduism]]
* 0.8% [[Buddhism in Indonesia|Buddhism]], [[Aliran Kepercayaan|Folk]], [[Confucianism]], and [[Religion in Indonesia|others]]
{{tree list/end}}
| religion_ref = <ref name="auto">{{cite web
|title=Population Geographic Information System
|url=https://gis.dukcapil.kemendagri.go.id/peta/
|via=Directorate General of Population and Civil Registration
|publisher=Ministry of Home Affairs of the Republic of Indonesia
|access-date=23 March 2025
|language=id
|archive-date=5 July 2022
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220705211227/http://gis.dukcapil.kemendagri.go.id/peta/
}}</ref>
| government_type = Unitary [[presidential republic]]
| leader_title1 = [[President of Indonesia|President]]
| leader_name1 = [[Prabowo Subianto]]
| leader_title2 = {{nowrap|[[Vice President of Indonesia|Vice President]]}}
| leader_name2 = [[Gibran Rakabuming Raka]]
| leader_title3 = [[Speaker of the House of Representatives (Indonesia)|House Speaker]]
| leader_name3 = [[Puan Maharani]]
| leader_title4 = [[Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Indonesia|Supreme Court]]
| leader_name4 = [[Sunarto (judge)|Sunarto]]
| leader_title5 = [[Chief Justice of the Constitutional Court of Indonesia|Constitutional Court]]
| leader_name5 = [[Suhartoyo]]
| legislature = [[People's Consultative Assembly]] (MPR)
| upper_house = [[Regional Representative Council]] (DPD)
| lower_house = [[House of Representatives (Indonesia)|House of Representatives]] (DPR)
| sovereignty_type = [[Indonesian National Revolution|Independence]]
| sovereignty_note = from the [[Dutch colonial empire|Netherlands]]<!-- Based on consensus, please discuss on the Talk Page before changing Netherlands to Japan, or adding both -->
| established_event1 = [[Proclamation of Indonesian Independence|Proclaimed]]
| established_date1 = 17 August 1945
| established_event2 = [[Dutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference|Recognised]]
| established_date2 = 27 December 1949
| area_km2 = 1,904,569<ref name="CIA" />
| area_label = Total
| area_rank = 14th
| area_sq_mi = 735,358 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]-->
| percent_water = 
| area_label2 = [[Water area|Water (%)]]
| area_data2 = 4.85
| population_estimate = {{increaseNeutral}} 288.315.089<ref>{{citation|url=https://mediaindonesia.com/politik-dan-hukum/869805/kemendagri-jumlah-penduduk-indonesia-2025-mencapai-288315-juta-laki-laki-lebih-banyak|title=Home Ministry: Indonesia’s population in 2025 reaches 288.315 million, males slightly outnumber females|website=Media Indonesia|language=id|access-date=13 March 2026}}</ref>
| population_census = 270,203,917<ref name="2020census" />
| population_estimate_year = 2025
| population_estimate_rank = 4th
| population_census_year = 2020
| population_density_km2 = 143
| population_density_sq_mi = 371
| population_density_rank = 88th
| GDP_PPP = {{increase}} $5.009&nbsp;trillion<ref name="IMFWEO.ID">{{cite web|url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2025/april/weo-report?c=536,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2023&ey=2030&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1|title=World Economic Outlook Database, April 2025 Edition. (Indonesia)|publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]]|date=22 April 2025|access-date=26 May 2025}}</ref>
| GDP_PPP_year = 2025
| GDP_PPP_rank = 7th
| GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $17,612<ref name="IMFWEO.ID" />
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 103rd
| GDP_nominal = {{increase}} $1.430&nbsp;trillion<ref name="IMFWEO.ID" />
| GDP_nominal_year = 2025
| GDP_nominal_rank = 17th
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $5,027<ref name="IMFWEO.ID" />
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 116th
| Gini = 37.9
| Gini_year = 2024
| Gini_change = decrease <!--increase/decrease/steady-->
| Gini_ref = <ref>{{Cite web|title=Gini ratio in March 2024 was 0.379|url=https://www.bps.go.id/en/pressrelease/2024/07/01/2371/gini-ratio-maret-2024-tercatat-sebesar-0-379-.html|date=1 July 2024|access-date=15 July 2024|publisher=[[Statistics Indonesia]]}}</ref>
| Gini_rank = 
| HDI = 0.728
| HDI_year = 2023
| HDI_change = increase <!--increase/decrease/steady-->
| HDI_ref = <ref name="UNHDR">{{Cite web|date=6 May 2025|title=Human Development Report 2025|url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2025reporten.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250506051232/https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2025reporten.pdf|archive-date=6 May 2025|access-date=6 May 2025|publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]|language=en}}</ref>
| HDI_rank = 113th
| currency = [[Indonesian rupiah]] (Rp)
| currency_code = IDR
| time_zone = [[Time in Indonesia|WIB, WITA, WIT]]
| utc_offset = +7, +8, +9
| date_format = DD/MM/YYYY
| drives_on = left <!--Note that this refers to the side of the road used, not the seating of the driver-->
| calling_code = [[+62]]
| cctld = [[.id]]
}}

'''Indonesia''',{{efn|{{IPAc-en|UK|ˌ|ɪ|n|d|ə|ˈ|n|iː|z|i|ə|,_|-|ʒ|ə}} {{Respell|IN|də|NEE|zee|ə|,_|-|zhə}} {{IPAc-en|US|audio=En-us-Indonesia.ogg|ˌ|ɪ|n|d|ə|ˈ|n|iː|ʒ|ə|,_|-|ʃ|ə}} {{Respell|IN|də|NEE|zhə|,_|-|shə}};<ref>{{Cite web|title=INDONESIA Definition & Meaning|url=https://www.dictionary.com/browse/Indonesia|access-date=7 May 2022|website=Dictionary.com|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite Merriam-Webster|Indonesia|access-date=7 May 2022}}</ref> {{IPA|id|ɪndoˈnesia}}}} officially the '''Republic of Indonesia''',{{efn|name=fn1|{{lang|id|Republik Indonesia}} ({{IPA|id|reˈpublik ɪndoˈnesia||audio=Id-Indonesia.ogg}}) is the most used official name, though the name [[Names of Indonesia|Unitary State of the Republic of Indonesia]] ({{lang|id|Negara Kesatuan Republik Indonesia}}, NKRI) also appears in some official documents, including the constitution.<ref name="UUD45" />}} is a country in [[Southeast Asia]] and [[Oceania]], between the [[Indian Ocean|Indian]] and [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]] oceans. Comprising over [[List of islands of Indonesia|17,000 islands]], including [[Sumatra]], [[Java]], [[Sulawesi]], and parts of [[Borneo]] and [[New Guinea]], Indonesia is the world's largest [[archipelagic state]] and the [[List of countries and dependencies by area|14th-largest country by area]], at {{convert|1904569|km2|sqmi|abbr=off}}. Indonesia has significant areas of wilderness that support one of the [[Megadiverse countries|world's highest levels of biodiversity]]. It shares [[Template:Borders of Indonesia|land borders]] with [[Papua New Guinea]], [[Timor-Leste]], and [[Malaysia]], as well as [[maritime border]]s with seven other countries, including [[Australia]], [[Singapore]], and the [[Philippines]].

The [[Nusantara (term)|Indonesian archipelago]] has been inhabited since prehistoric times, with early human presence evidenced by fossils of ''[[Homo erectus]]'' and ''[[Homo sapiens]]'', and megalithic sites. By the early second millennium, it had become a crossroads for international [[trade]] linking East and South Asia. Over the centuries, external influences—including [[Hinduism in Indonesia|Hinduism]], [[Buddhism in Indonesia|Buddhism]] and later [[Islam in Indonesia|Islam]]—were absorbed into local societies, which introduced lasting cultural and religious influences. European powers later competed to monopolise trade in the Spice Islands of [[Maluku Islands|Maluku]] during the [[Age of Discovery]], followed by three and a half centuries of [[Dutch East Indies#History|Dutch colonial rule]], before Indonesia [[Proclamation of Indonesian Independence|proclaimed its independence]] in the [[aftermath of World War II]]. 

Since independence, Indonesia has grappled with numerous challenges including separatism, corruption, political upheaval and natural disasters, alongside [[Post-Suharto era in Indonesia|democratisation]] and rapid economic growth. The country today is a [[Presidential system|presidential republic]] with an elected [[People's Consultative Assembly|legislature]] and consists of [[Provinces of Indonesia|38 provinces]], some of which enjoy [[Autonomous administrative division|greater autonomy]] than others. Home to over 280 million people, Indonesia [[List of countries and dependencies by population|ranks fourth in the world by population]] and has the largest [[Islam by country|Muslim population of any country]]. More than half of Indonesians live on Java, the [[List of islands by population|most heavily populated island]] in the world, while the capital [[Jakarta]] is the world's [[List of largest cities|largest urban agglomeration]].

Indonesian society comprises hundreds of [[Ethnic groups in Indonesia|ethnic]] and [[Languages of Indonesia|linguistic]] groups, with [[Javanese people|Javanese]] forming the largest. National identity is unified under the motto ''[[Bhinneka Tunggal Ika]]'', reflected by a [[Indonesian language|national language]] alongside cultural and religious pluralism. A [[newly industrialised country]], Indonesia has the largest [[economy of Indonesia|national economy]] in Southeast Asia by GDP. The country plays an active role in regional and global affairs as a [[middle power]] and is a member of major multilateral organisations, including the [[United Nations]], [[G20]], the [[Non-Aligned Movement]], [[ASEAN]], and the [[Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]].

== Etymology ==
{{Main|Names of Indonesia}}

The name ''Indonesia'' derives from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] words {{lang|grc-Latn|[[wikt:Indo-|Indos]]}} ({{lang|grc|Ἰνδός}}) and {{lang|grc|[[wikt:νῆσος|nesos]]}} ({{lang|grc|νῆσος}}), meaning {{gloss|Indian islands}}.<ref name="EcoSeas1">{{cite book|last1=Tomascik|first1=T.|last2=Mah|first2=A.J.|last3=Nontji|first3=A.|last4=Moosa|first4=M.K.|title=The Ecology of the Indonesian Seas – Part One|publisher=Periplus Editions|year=1996|location=Hong Kong|isbn=978-962-593-078-7}}</ref> The name dates back to the 19th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850, [[George Windsor Earl]], an English [[ethnology|ethnologist]], proposed the terms ''Indunesians''—and, his preference, ''Malayunesians''—for the inhabitants of the "Indian Archipelago or [[Malay Archipelago]]".{{sfn|Earl|1850|p=119}}<ref name="indoety">{{cite web|url=https://nationalgeographic.grid.id/read/134107988/berkat-soewardi-nama-indonesia-bermula-di-den-haag-sejak-1918|title=Thanks to Soewardi, the Name 'Indonesia' Originated in The Hague in 1918|publisher=National Geographic Indonesia|language=id|last1=Pranata|first1=G.|date=20 June 2024|access-date=27 November 2025|archive-date=20 June 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240620114215/https://nationalgeographic.grid.id/read/134107988/berkat-soewardi-nama-indonesia-bermula-di-den-haag-sejak-1918?page=all|url-status=live}}</ref> In the same publication, one of his students, [[James Richardson Logan]], used ''Indonesia'' as a synonym for ''Indian Archipelago''.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Logan|first=J.R.|title=The Ethnology of the Indian Archipelago: Embracing Enquiries into the Continental Relations of the Indo-Pacific Islanders|journal=Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia|year=1850|volume=4|pages=252–347}}</ref>{{sfn|Earl|1850|pp=254, 277–278}} Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use ''Indonesia''. They preferred ''Malay Archipelago'' ({{langx|nl|Maleische Archipel}}); the ''[[Dutch East Indies|Netherlands East Indies]]'' ({{lang|nl|Nederlandsch Oost Indië}}), popularly {{lang|nl|Indië}}; ''the East'' ({{lang|nl|de Oost}}); and {{lang|nl|Insulinde}}.<ref name="Kroef">{{cite journal|title=The Term Indonesia: Its Origin and Usage|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society|first=J.M.|last=van der Kroef|volume=71|issue=3|pages=166–171|year=1951|doi=10.2307/595186|jstor=595186}}</ref>

After 1900, ''Indonesia'' became more common in academic circles outside the Netherlands, and native nationalist groups adopted it for political expression.<ref name="Kroef" /> [[Adolf Bastian]] of the University of Berlin popularised the name through his book {{lang|de|Indonesien oder die Inseln des Malayischen Archipels, 1884–1894|italic=yes}}. The first native scholar to use the name was [[Ki Hajar Dewantara]], who established a press bureau in the Netherlands, {{lang|nl|Indonesisch Pers-bureau}}, in 1918.<ref name="indoety" />

== History ==
{{Main|History of Indonesia}}

=== Early history ===
{{Main|Prehistoric Indonesia}}
[[File:Lubang Jeriji Saléh cave painting of Bull.jpg|thumb|left|One of the oldest known [[Figurative art|figurative painting]]s, a depiction of a bull, was discovered in the ''[[Lubang Jeriji Saléh]]'' cave dated as 40,000 to 44,000 years old.]]
The Indonesian archipelago has been inhabited since prehistoric times. Fossils of ''[[Homo erectus]]'' ("[[Java Man]]") date back between 2 million and 500,000 BCE,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pope|first=G.G.|title=Recent advances in far eastern paleoanthropology|journal=Annual Review of Anthropology|volume=17|pages=43–77|year=1988|issue=1|doi=10.1146/annurev.an.17.100188.000355|bibcode=1988ARAnt..17...43P}} cited in {{cite book|last1=Whitten|first1=T.|last2=Soeriaatmadja|first2=R.E.|last3=Suraya|first3=A.A.|title=The Ecology of Java and Bali|publisher=Periplus Editions|year=1996|location=Hong Kong|pages=309–412}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pope|first=G.G.|title=Evidence on the age of the Asian Hominidae|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=80|issue=16|pages=4988–4992|year=1983|pmid=6410399|doi=10.1073/pnas.80.16.4988|pmc=384173|bibcode=1983PNAS...80.4988P|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=de Vos|first1=J.P.|last2=Sondaar|first2=P.Y.|title=Dating hominid sites in Indonesia|journal=Science|volume=266|issue=16|pages=4988–4992|year=1994|doi=10.1126/science.7992059|bibcode=1994Sci...266.1726D|doi-access=free}}</ref> while ''[[Homo sapiens]]'' arrived around 50,000 BCE.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Brumm|first1=A.|last2=Jensen|first2=G.M.|last3=van den Bergh|first3=G.D.|last4=Morwood|first4=M.J.|last5=Kurniawan|first5=I.|last6=Aziz|first6=F.|last7=Storey|first7=M.|year=2010|title=Hominins on Flores, Indonesia, by one million years ago|journal=Nature|volume=464|issue=7289|pages=748–752|bibcode=2010Natur.464..748B|doi=10.1038/nature08844|pmid=20237472}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=O'Connor|first1=S.|last2=Bulbeck|first2=D.|title=The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology and Anthropology of Hunter-Gatherers|chapter=Homo Sapiens Societies in Indonesia and South-Eastern Asia|publisher=Oxford Academic|editor-last1=Cummings|editor-first1=V.|editor-last2=Jordan|editor-first2=P.|editor-last3=Zvelebil|editor-first3=M.|date=1 October 2013|pages=346–367|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199551224.013.018}}</ref> Archaeological discoveries, including [[cave painting]]s in Sulawesi and Borneo and megalithic sites across Sumatra, Sulawesi, and eastern Indonesia, reflect early human settlement and ritual practices.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Harris|first=G.|date=4 July 2024|title=Oldest example of figurative art found in Indonesian cave|url=https://www.theartnewspaper.com/2024/07/04/oldest-example-of-figurative-art-found-in-indonesian-cave|access-date=5 July 2024|website=The Art Newspaper|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240704104825/https://www.theartnewspaper.com/2024/07/04/oldest-example-of-figurative-art-found-in-indonesian-cave|archive-date=4 July 2024|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Oktaviana|first1=A.A.|last2=Joannes-Boyau|first2=R.|last3=Hakim|first3=B.|display-authors=etal|date=3 July 2024|title=Narrative cave art in Indonesia by 51,200 years ago|journal=Nature|volume=631|issue=8022|pages=814–818|language=en|doi=10.1038/s41586-024-07541-7|issn=0028-0836|doi-access=free|pmid=38961284|pmc=11269172|bibcode=2024Natur.631..814O}}</ref><ref name="Tara">{{cite book|last=Steimer-Herbet|first=T.|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/jj.15136043|title=Indonesian Megaliths: A Forgotten Cultural Heritage|date=2018|publisher=Archaeopress|doi=10.2307/jj.15136043|isbn=978-1-78491-844-6}}</ref>

Around 2000 BCE, [[Austronesian peoples]] migrated into the archipelago from [[Taiwan]],{{sfn|Forshee|2006|pp=6}} gradually spreading eastward and shaping much of Indonesia's linguistic and cultural foundations.{{sfn|Taylor|2003|pp=5–7}}<ref>{{cite book|title=The Austronesians: Historical and Comparative Perspectives|editor-last1=Bellwodd|editor-first1=P.|display-editors=etal|chapter=The Austronesians in History: Common Origins and Diverse Transformations|last1=Bellwood|first1=P.|display-authors=etal|series=Comparative Austronesian Series|publisher=ANU Press|date=2006|page=1|isbn=978-1-920942-85-4}}</ref> By the 8th century BCE, favourable agricultural conditions and the development of [[Paddy field|wet-field rice cultivation]] supported the emergence of villages and early polities by the first century CE.{{sfn|Taylor|2003|pp=8–9}} The archipelago's strategic location facilitated sustained contact with civilisations from the Indian subcontinent and mainland China, profoundly influencing Indonesian history and culture through trade.{{sfn|Taylor|2003|pp=3, 9–11, 13–15, 18–20, 22–23}}{{sfn|Vickers|2013|pp=2}}{{sfn|Taylor|2003|pp=15–18}}

From the 7th century, maritime kingdoms such as [[Srivijaya]] rose to prominence on trade, adopting Hindu and Buddhist influences.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Manguin|first=P-Y.|title=Srivijaya: Trade and Connectivity in the Pre-modern Malay World|journal=Journal of Urban Archaeology|publisher=Brepols Online|date=2021|volume=3|pages=87–100|doi=10.1484/J.JUA.5.123677}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Wicahyah|first1=D.|last2=Asyari|first2=A.K.|last3=Irwanto|first3=D.|first4=Retno Susanti|last4=L.R.|title=The Relationship between Buddhist education in Sriwijaya and Buddhist education in India|journal=Ilomata International Journal of Social Science|date=July 2022|volume=3|issue=3|pages=303–313|doi=10.1484/J.JUA.5.123677}}</ref> Between the 8th and 10th centuries, the [[Sailendra]] and [[Mataram Kingdom|Mataram]] dynasties left enduring architectural legacies, including [[Borobudur]] and [[Prambanan]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Munandar|first=A. A.|chapter=Ancient Religious Artworks in Central Java (8th-10th century AD)|title=Cultural Dynamics in a Globalized World|publisher=Taylor & Francis Group|date=2017|edition=3|isbn=978-1-315-22534-0|doi=10.1201/9781315225340}}</ref> Following a failed [[Mongol invasion of Java]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Bade|first=D.W.|title=Of Palm Wine, Women and War: The Mongolian Naval Expedition to Java in the 13th Century|publisher=ISEAS Publishing|location=Singapore|date=2013|edition=3|isbn=978-981-4517-82-9}}</ref> the [[Majapahit]] empire emerged in the late 13th century, dominating much of the archipelago.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The next great empire|last=Lewis|first=P.|journal=Futures|volume=14|issue=1|year=1982|pages=47–61|doi=10.1016/0016-3287(82)90071-4}}</ref> Islam [[Spread of Islam in Indonesia|began to take root]] around the same time in northern Sumatra,{{sfn|Ricklefs|2001|pp=4, 7, 10–11}} and gradually became the dominant religion in Java and Sumatra by the 16th century. It blended with existing local traditions, producing a distinct Islamic culture, particularly in Java.{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|pp=12–14}}

=== Colonial era ===
{{Main|Dutch East India Company in Indonesia|Dutch East Indies}}
[[File:Nicolaas Pieneman - The Submission of Prince Dipo Negoro to General De Kock.jpg|thumb|left|An 1835 painting illustrating the submission of Prince [[Diponegoro]] to [[Hendrik Merkus de Kock|General De Kock]] at the end of the [[Java War]] in 1830|alt=]]
European involvement in the archipelago began in the early 16th century with [[Portuguese Empire in the Indonesian Archipelago|Portuguese traders seeking control of the spice trade]].{{sfn|Ricklefs|2001|pp=27}} The Dutch soon followed, establishing the [[Dutch East India Company]] (''Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie'', VOC) in 1602.{{sfn|Ricklefs|2001|p=31}} Over time, the VOC became the dominant European power until its dissolution in 1800, after which its possessions were transferred to the [[Batavian Republic|Dutch state]] as the [[Dutch East Indies]].{{sfn|Ricklefs|2001|p=144}} Dutch control over the archipelago was tenuous and uneven,{{sfn|Friend|2003|p=8}} facing resistance across [[Java War|Java]], [[Padri Wars|Sumatra]], [[Template:Campaignbox Dutch interventions in Bali|Bali]], and [[Aceh War|Aceh]].{{sfn|Schwarz|1994|pp=3–4}}{{sfn|Friend|2003|p=21}} Consolidation of Dutch colonial rule over Indonesia's modern boundaries was largely completed only in the early 20th century,{{sfn|Friend|2003|p=8}}{{sfn|Taylor|2003|pp=209–278}}{{sfn|Vickers|2013|pp=6}} after the Dutch established posts in [[western New Guinea]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Singh|first1=Bilveer|title=Papua|date=2017|doi=10.4324/9781315125985|isbn=978-1-315-12598-5|page=26}}</ref>

[[Dutch East Indies campaign|Japanese invasion]] and [[Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies|occupation]] during [[World War II]] ended Dutch rule and encouraged Indonesia's independence movement.<ref>{{cite book|last=Borch|first=F.L.|title=Military Trials of War Criminals in the Netherlands East Indies 1946-1949|chapter=Setting the Stage: The Dutch in the East Indies from 1595 to 1942|publisher=Oxford Academic|date=August 2017|volume=1|pages=6–18|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198777168.003.0002}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Elson|first1=R. E.|title=The Idea of Indonesia: A History|date=2008|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-87648-3|pages=1–12}}</ref> Shortly after [[Surrender of Japan|Japan's surrender]], [[Sukarno]] and [[Mohammad Hatta]] issued the [[Proclamation of Indonesian Independence]], and they became the country's first president and vice-president, along with [[Sutan Sjahrir]] as Prime Minister.{{sfn|Ricklefs|2001|p=262, 268}}<ref>{{cite journal|title=Indonesia|last=van Mook|first=H.J.|author-link=Hubertus Johannes van Mook|journal=Royal Institute of International Affairs|date=1949|volume=25|issue=3|pages=274–285|doi=10.2307/3016666|jstor=3016666}}</ref><ref name="Bidien1945">{{cite journal|title=Independence the Issue|journal=Far Eastern Survey|last=Bidien|first=C.|volume=14|issue=24|pages=345–348|date=5 December 1945|doi=10.2307/3023219|jstor=3023219}}</ref> The Netherlands attempted to reassert control,{{sfn|Ricklefs|2001|pp=265}} prompting the start of [[Indonesian National Revolution|Indonesia's war of independence against the Dutch]].{{sfn|Friend|2003|p=35–38}}{{sfn|Ricklefs|2001|pp=261–286}} The conflict lasted until 1949 when the Dutch recognised Indonesian independence amid international pressure.{{sfn|Friend|2003|p=38}}<ref name="Bidien1945" />

=== Post-World War II ===
{{multiple image
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| image1 = Presiden Sukarno (retouched).jpg
| image2 = Mohammad Hatta, Pekan Buku Indonesia 1954, p242.jpg
| footer = [[Sukarno]] (''left'') and [[Mohammad Hatta]] (''right''), Indonesia's founding fathers and the first [[President of Indonesia|president]] and [[Vice President of Indonesia|vice president]] respectively
}}

Sukarno shifted Indonesia from [[Liberal democracy period in Indonesia|democracy]] to [[Guided Democracy in Indonesia|authoritarianism]], and maintained power by balancing the opposing forces of political Islam, [[Indonesian National Armed Forces|the military]], and the [[Communist Party of Indonesia]] (PKI).{{sfn|Ricklefs|2001|pp=312–341}} Rising tensions culminated in an [[30 September Movement|attempted coup in 1965]], followed by a widespread and violent [[Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66|anti-communist purge]] led by the military and allied groups.{{efn|It is estimated that at least 500,000 people were killed and around a million more were imprisoned.{{sfn|Melvin|2018|p=1}}{{sfn|Robinson|2018|p=3}}<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Cribb|first1=Robert|title=Unresolved Problems in the Indonesian Killings of 1965–1966|journal=Asian Survey|date=August 2002|volume=42|issue=4|pages=550–563|doi=10.1525/as.2002.42.4.550}}; {{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-41651047|title=Indonesia massacres: Declassified US files shed new light|publisher=BBC|date=17 October 2017|access-date=19 September 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171118112221/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-41651047|archive-date=18 November 2017}}</ref>{{sfn|Bevins|2020|pp=168, 185}}}} The PKI was blamed for the coup and destroyed, and Sukarno's power weakened.{{sfn|Ricklefs|2001|pp=342–346}}{{sfn|Ricklefs|2001|pp=346, 348}} Major General [[Suharto]] [[Transition to the New Order|capitalised on this]] and assumed the presidency in 1968, establishing a US-backed [[New Order (Indonesia)|"New Order"]] military dictatorship,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Legge|first1=John D.|title=General Suharto's New Order|journal=International Affairs|date=1968|volume=44|issue=1|pages=40–47|doi=10.2307/2613527|jstor=2613527}}</ref>{{sfn|Melvin|2018|pp=9-10}}<ref>{{cite book|editor-first1=David|editor-last1=Slater|title=Geopolitics and the Post-Colonial|date=2004|doi=10.1002/9780470756218|isbn=978-0-631-21452-6|page=70}}</ref> which fostered [[foreign direct investment]]<ref>{{cite journal|last=Farid|first=H.|date=2005|title=Indonesia's original sin: mass killings and capitalist expansion, 1965–66|journal=Inter-Asia Cultural Studies|volume=6|issue=1|pages=3–16|doi=10.1080/1462394042000326879}}</ref>{{sfn|Robinson|2018|p=206}}{{sfn|Bevins|2020|pp=167–168}} and drove three decades of substantial economic growth.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hill|first1=H.|last2=Narjoko|first2=D.|chapter=Managing Industrialisation in a Globalising Economy: Lessons from the Soeharto Era|page=50|title=Soeharto's New Order and Its Legacy: Essays in honour of Harold Crouch|publisher=ANU Press|date=2010|series=Asian Studies Series|volume=2|isbn=978-1-921666-47-6}}</ref>

Indonesia's [[Indonesian invasion of East Timor|invasion]] of [[Democratic Republic of East Timor (1975)|East Timor]] in 1975 and the [[Indonesian occupation of East Timor|subsequent occupation]] drew international condemnation,<ref>{{cite web|last=Burr|first=W.|title=East Timor Revisited, Ford, Kissinger, and the Indonesian Invasion, 1975–76|work=National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 62|publisher=[[National Security Archive]], [[George Washington University]]|location=Washington, DC|date=6 December 2001|url=https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB62/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170823130223/https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB62/|archive-date=23 August 2017|access-date=17 September 2006}}</ref><ref name="ETG">{{cite journal|url=https://ssrn.com/abstract=1462454|last=Suzannah|first=L.|title=Accounting for Atrocities in Indonesia|journal=Singapore Year Book of International Law|publisher=Faculty of Law at the National University of Singapore|date=2007|volume=11|pages=195–259}}</ref> and the regime came under growing criticism for human rights abuses after the [[Cold War]] ended.{{sfn|Vickers|2013|pp=212}}{{sfn|Friend|2003|pp=431}} The New Order was destabilised when Indonesia became affected by the [[1997 Asian financial crisis]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Delhaise|first=P.F.|title=Asia in Crisis: The Implosion of the Banking and Finance Systems|publisher=Willey|year=1998|page=123|isbn=978-0-471-83450-2}}</ref> bringing out [[May 1998 riots of Indonesia#Background|widespread discontent]] with the New Order's corruption and political suppression and ultimately [[Fall of Suharto|ended Suharto's rule]].{{sfn|Vickers|2013|pp=209–212}}<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Pincus|first1=J.|last2=Ramli|first2=R.|title=Indonesia: from showcase to basket case|journal=Cambridge Journal of Economics|date=November 1998|volume=22|issue=6|pages=723–734|doi=10.1093/cje/22.6.723}}</ref> In 1999, East Timor [[1999 East Timorese independence referendum|voted to secede]] after a 24-year military occupation that some scholars classified as [[East Timor genocide|genocide]].<ref name="ETG" />

In the [[Post-Suharto era in Indonesia|post-Suharto era since 1998]], Indonesia has undertaken democratic reforms including the introduction of regional autonomy and the [[2004 Indonesian presidential election|first direct presidential election]].<ref name="OtonomiDaerah">{{cite journal|last1=Butt|first1=Simon|title=Regional Autonomy and Legal Disorder: The Proliferation of Local Laws in Indonesia|journal=Singapore Journal of Legal Studies|date=2010|pages=1–21|id={{ProQuest|753862185}}|jstor=24870542|ssrn=1729404}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Dagg|first1=C.J.|title=The 2004 elections in Indonesia: Political reform and democratisation|journal=Asia Pacific Viewpoint|publisher=Wiley Online Library|date=April 2007|volume=48|issue=1|pages=47–59|doi=10.22146/ijg.12792}}</ref> Instability and [[Terrorism in Indonesia|terrorism]] were persistent in the 2000s<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Liddle|first1=R. William|title=INDONESIA IN 2000 A Shaky Start for Democracy|journal=Asian Survey|date=February 2001|volume=41|issue=1|pages=208–220|doi=10.1525/as.2001.41.1.208}}</ref><ref>{{cite report|last1=Hwang|first1=Julie Chernov|title=Terrorism in Perspective: An Assessment of 'Jihad Project' Trends in Indonesia|date=September 2012|id={{ProQuest|1716947838}}|jstor=resrep06463}}</ref> but the economy has performed strongly since 2004 despite [[Corruption in Indonesia|pervasive corruption]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Mukartono|first1=A.|last2=Hartiwiningsih|first2=H.|last3=Rustamaji|first3=M.|chapter=The Development of Corruption in Indonesia (Is Corruption a Culture of Indonesia?)|title=Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Globalization of Law and Local Wisdom (ICGLOW 2019)|series=Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research|publisher=Atlantis Press|date=October 2019|volume=358|doi=10.2991/icglow-19.2019.36|isbn=978-94-6252-819-2}}</ref> Relations among the diverse population are mostly harmonious, but sectarian discontent and violence remain problematic in some areas.<ref name="RIP">{{cite book|last=Harsono|first=A.|title=Race, Islam and Power: Ethnic and Religious Violence in Post-Suharto Indonesia|publisher=Monash University Publishing|date=May 2019|isbn=978-1-925835-09-0}}</ref> A political settlement to a separatist [[insurgency in Aceh]] was achieved in 2005.<ref name="AcehPeace">{{citation|last1=Parks|first1=T.|display-authors=etal|title=The Contested Corners of Asia: Subnational Conflict and International Development Assistance|chapter=The Case of Aceh, Indonesia|publisher=The Asia Foundation|date=7 October 2013|isbn=978-616-91408-1-8}}</ref>

== Geography ==
{{Main|Geography of Indonesia|List of islands of Indonesia}}
[[File:Bromo-Semeru-Batok-Widodaren.jpg|thumb|[[Semeru|Mount Semeru]] and [[Mount Bromo]] in [[East Java]]. Indonesia's seismic and volcanic activity is among the world's highest.]]
Indonesia's physical geography is defined by its vast archipelagic extent and diverse landforms. It lies between latitudes [[11th parallel south|11°S]] and [[6th parallel north|6°N]] and longitudes [[95th meridian east|95°E]] and [[141st meridian east|141°E]],<ref name="CCaCC" /> and is the world's largest [[archipelagic state]], stretching {{convert|5120|km|0}} from east to west and {{convert|1760|km|0}} from north to south.{{sfn|Frederick|Worden|2011|p=98}} The exact number of Indonesia's islands varies according to different sources, usually ranging from 13,000 to 17,000, with around 922 permanently inhabited.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Sukendra|first1=M.|title=The Analysis of Geospatial Information for Validating Some Numbers of Islands in Indonesia|journal=Indonesian Journal of Geography|date=December 2017|volume=49|number=2|pages=204–211|doi=10.22146/ijg.12792}}</ref><ref name="CIA">{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Indonesia|date=3 December 2025|access-date=5 December 2025}}</ref> Its five main islands are [[Sumatra]], [[Java]], [[Borneo]] (shared with Brunei and Malaysia), [[Sulawesi]], and [[New Guinea]] (shared with [[Papua New Guinea]]).{{sfn|Frederick|Worden|2011|p=99}}

The country features diverse topography, including towering mountains, vast lakes, and extensive river systems. At {{convert|4884|m|ft}}, [[Puncak Jaya]] in New Guinea is Indonesia's highest peak,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/955/|title=Lorentz National Park|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=4 January 2026}}</ref> while [[Lake Toba]] in [[Sumatra]], covering {{convert|1,145|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}, is the largest lake.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://en.unesco.org/global-geoparks/toba-caldera|title=Toba Caldera UNESCO Global Geopark|publisher=UNESCO Global Geoparks|access-date=13 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240313102925/https://en.unesco.org/global-geoparks/toba-caldera|archive-date=13 March 2024}}</ref> The country's major rivers, primarily in [[Kalimantan]], include [[Kapuas River|Kapuas]], [[Barito River|Barito]] and [[Mahakam River|Mahakam]], serving as vital transportation and communication routes for remote riverine communities.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Lubis|first1=M.S.|last2=Susanto|first2=D.|last3=Harjoko|first3=T.Y.|title=Understanding Riverine Urbanism in Kalimantan through Diachronic Approach: Case Study of Lanting Settlements in Sintang, Indonesia|journal=Journal of Architectural Design and Urbanism|publisher=ISOMAse|date=25 October 2021|volume=4|number=1|pages=12–26|doi=10.14710/jadu.v4i1.12133|doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== Climate ===
{{Main|Climate of Indonesia|Climate change in Indonesia}}
[[File:Koppen-Geiger Map IDN present.svg|thumb|upright=1.2|[[Köppen climate classification|Köppen-Geiger climate classification]] map of Indonesia<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Beck|first1=Hylke E.|last2=Zimmermann|first2=Niklaus E.|last3=McVicar|first3=Tim R.|last4=Vergopolan|first4=Noemi|last5=Berg|first5=Alexis|last6=Wood|first6=Eric F.|author6-link=Eric Franklin Wood|title=Present and future Köppen-Geiger climate classification maps at 1-km resolution|journal=Scientific Data|date=30 October 2018|volume=5|article-number=180214|doi=10.1038/sdata.2018.214|pmid=30375988|pmc=6207062|bibcode=2018NatSD...580214B}}</ref>|alt=]]
Indonesia's climate is shaped by its equatorial position and monsoon systems. The former helps ensure a relatively stable climate year-round,<ref name="climateADBWBG">{{cite report|title=Climate Risk Profile: Indonesia (2021)|url=https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org/sites/default/files/2021-05/15504-Indonesia%20Country%20Profile-WEB_0.pdf|work=Climate Change Knowledge Portal|publisher=The World Bank Group and Asian Development Bank}}</ref> characterised by two main seasons: the [[dry season]] from May to October and the [[wet season]] from November to April,<ref name="climateADBWBG" /> with no extremes of summer and winter. The climate is predominantly [[Tropical rainforest climate|tropical rainforest]], with cooler climates in higher areas over {{convert|500|m|ft|abbr=off}} above sea level.<ref name="CCaCC">{{cite book|last1=Paramita|first1=B.|last2=Matzarakis|first2=A.|chapter=Urban Biometeorology of Tropical Climate: Af, Am, Aw, a Propensity of 34 Provincial Cities in Indonesia|title=Climate Change and Cooling Cities|publisher=Springer, Singapore|date=1 September 2023|pages=283–296|doi=10.1007/978-981-99-3675-5_16|isbn=978-981-99-3675-5}}</ref>

Rainfall patterns vary across the archipelago, with regions like western Sumatra, Java, and the interiors of Kalimantan and Papua receiving more precipitation,<ref name="rainfall">{{cite journal|last1=Zaini|first1=A.Z.A.|last2=Vonnisa|first2=M.|last3=Marzuki|first3=M.|first4=Ramadhan|last4=R.|title=Seasonal Variation of Rainfall in Indonesia under Normal Conditions without ENSO and IOD Events from 1981-2021|journal=Journal of Research in Science Education|publisher=Postgraduate University of Mataram|date=25 November 2023|volume=9|number=11|pages=9899–9909|doi=10.29303/jppipa.v9i11.4569}}</ref> while areas closer to Australia, such as Nusa Tenggara, are drier.<ref name="rainfall" /> The warm waters covering 81% of Indonesia's area keep land temperatures stable,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Iskandar|first1=I.|last2=Mardiansyah|first2=W.|last3=Lestari|first3=D.O.|last4=Masumoto|first4=Y.|title=What did determine the warming trend in the Indonesian sea?|journal=Progress in Earth and Planetary Science|publisher=SpringerOpen|date=24 May 2020|volume=7|number=20|pages=113–124|doi=10.1186/s40645-020-00334-2|bibcode=2020PEPS....7...20I|doi-access=free}}</ref> with high humidity (70–90%)<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Putro|first1=R.H.|last2=Miyaura|first2=R.|title=Indonesian Permaculture: Factors shaping permaculture farm systems in humid tropical Indonesia|journal=Tropical Agriculture and Development|publisher=Japanese Society for Tropical Agriculture|date=2020|volume=64|issue=3|pages=113–124|doi=10.11248/jsta.64.113}}</ref> and moderate, predictable winds influenced by monsoon cycles.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Purwanto|first1=P.|display-authors=etal|title=Seasonal Variability of Waves Within the Indonesian Seas and Its Relation With the Monsoon Wind|journal=Indonesian Journal of Marine Sciences|date=2 September 2021|volume=26|number=3|pages=189–196|doi=10.14710/ik.ijms.26.3.189-196}}</ref> Major weather hazards include strong currents in straits, such as the [[Lombok Strait|Lombok]] and [[Sape Strait]]s,<ref>{{cite journal|title=Remote energy sources for mixing in the Indonesian Seas|journal=Nature Communications|last1=Pang|first1=C.|last2=Nikurashin|first2=M.|last3=Pena-Molino|first3=B.|display-authors=etal|volume=13|number=6535|date=1 November 2022|article-number=6535|doi=10.1038/s41467-022-34046-6|pmid=36319627|pmc=9626468|bibcode=2022NatCo..13.6535P}}</ref> rather than [[tropical cyclone]]s.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Chang|first1=C.P.|display-authors=etal|date=15 February 2003|title=Typhoon Vamei: An equatorial tropical cyclone formation|journal=Geophysical Research Letters|publisher=AGU Publications|volume=30|doi=10.1029/2002GL016365|issue=3|article-number=2002GL016365|doi-access=free|bibcode=2003GeoRL..30.1150C}}</ref>

Several studies consider Indonesia to be at severe risk from the [[Climate change in Indonesia|projected effects of climate change]].<ref>{{cite report|title=Climate Change in the Indonesian Mind|date=3 October 2023|last1=Leiserowitz|first1=A.|display-authors=etal|work=Yale Program on Climate Change Communication|publisher=Yale School of the Environment}}</ref> A temperature rise of {{cvt|1.5|C-change|0}}<ref>{{cite report|url=https://www.g20climaterisks.org/indonesia/|last1=Mercogliano|first1=P.|last2=Reder|first2=A.|last3=Ellena|first3=M.|display-authors=etal|year=2021|title=G20 Climate Risk Atlas. Impacts, policy and economics in the G20|doi=10.25424/cmcc/g20_climaterisk}}</ref><ref name="ClimChng">{{cite web|title=Climate Change in Indonesia: Implications for Humans and Nature|url=http://awsassets.panda.org/downloads/inodesian_climate_change_impacts_report_14nov07.pdf|vauthors=Case M, Ardiansyah F, Spector E|publisher=WWF|date=14 November 2007|access-date=18 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180219103237/http://awsassets.panda.org/downloads/inodesian_climate_change_impacts_report_14nov07.pdf|archive-date=19 February 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> could intensify droughts, disrupt rainfall patterns critical to agriculture,<ref name="ClimChng" /> and increase occurrences of food shortages, diseases, and wildfires.<ref name="ClimChng" /> [[Sea level rise|Rising sea levels]] would threaten densely populated coastal regions,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://climatecentral.org/news/report-flooded-future-global-vulnerability-to-sea-level-rise-worse-than-previously-understood|title=Report: Flooded Future: Global vulnerability to sea level rise worse than previously understood|date=29 October 2019|publisher=Climate Central|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191030004718/https://www.climatecentral.org/news/report-flooded-future-global-vulnerability-to-sea-level-rise-worse-than-previously-understood|archive-date=30 October 2019|access-date=5 November 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Widodo|first=A.|title=Analyzing Indonesia's NCICD Project to Stop the Capital City Sinking|journal=Otoritas: Jurnal Ilmu Pemerintahan|date=October 2017|volume=7|number=2|pages=54–56|doi=10.26618/ojip.v7i2.769}}</ref> particularly given Indonesia's extensive coastlines. Impoverished communities are expected to be disproportionately affected.<ref>{{cite web|title=Indonesia: Climate Risk and Adaptation Country Profile|publisher=World Bank|date=April 2011|url=http://sdwebx.worldbank.org/climateportal/countryprofile/doc/GFDRRCountryProfiles/wb_gfdrr_climate_change_country_profile_for_IDN.pdf|access-date=18 November 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171206014747/http://sdwebx.worldbank.org/climateportal/countryprofile/doc/GFDRRCountryProfiles/wb_gfdrr_climate_change_country_profile_for_IDN.pdf|archive-date=6 December 2017}}</ref>

=== Geology ===
{{Main|Geology of Indonesia}}
{{See also|List of volcanoes in Indonesia}}
[[File:Lake Toba and the surrounding hills.jpg|thumb|[[Lake Toba]] in [[North Sumatra]], the world's largest known [[Cenozoic]] caldera.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Koulakov|first1=I.|display-authors=etal|title=P, S velocity and VP/VS ratio beneath the Toba caldera complex (Northern Sumatra) from local earthquake tomography|journal=Geophysical Journal International|date=1 June 2009|volume=177|issue=3|pages=1121–1139|doi=10.1111/j.1365-246X.2009.04114.x|doi-access=free}}</ref>]]
Indonesia's geology is shaped by its position on the Pacific [[Ring of Fire]], namely a subduction zone where several tectonic plates collide.{{efn|The [[Eurasian plate]], the [[Indo-Australian plate]], and the [[Pacific plate]].}}<ref name="volcano">{{cite journal|last1=Hidayat|first1=A.|display-authors=etal|title=Eruption on Indonesia's volcanic islands: a review of potential hazards, fatalities, and management|journal=IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science|publisher=IOP Publishing Ltd|date=2020|volume=485|issue=1|article-number=012061|doi=10.1088/1755-1315/485/1/012061|bibcode=2020E&ES..485a2061H}}</ref> This tectonic activity makes the region highly unstable with volcanoes and earthquakes.<ref name="volcano" /> Around 130 volcanoes are classified as active,<ref name="volcano" /> stretching from [[Sumatra]] through [[Java]], [[Bali]] and the [[Lesser Sunda Islands]], and the [[Banda Islands]] to northeastern [[Sulawesi]].{{sfn|Witton|2003|p=38}} [[Volcanic ash]], while harmful to agriculture, has created fertile soils that have historically sustained the high population densities of regions with volcanoes,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Fiantis|first1=D.|last2=Ginting|first2=F.I.|last3=Gusnidar|first3=G.|last4=Nelson|first4=M.|last5=Minasny|first5=B.|title=Volcanic Ash, Insecurity for the People but Securing Fertile Soil for the Future|journal=Sustainability|volume=11|issue=11|publisher=MDPI|date=31 May 2019|page=3072|doi=10.3390/su11113072|doi-access=free|bibcode=2019Sust...11.3072F}}</ref> such as Java and Bali.

The archipelago has witnessed several powerful volcanic eruptions with global repercussions. A [[Youngest Toba eruption#Toba catastrophe theory|massive supervolcano erupted]] at present-day [[Lake Toba]] around 74,000 BCE, which possibly influenced human evolution.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ge|first1=Y.|last2=Gao|first2=X.|title=Understanding the overestimated impact of the Toba volcanic super-eruption on global environments and ancient hominins|journal=Quaternary International|date=10 September 2020|volume=559|pages=24–33|doi=10.1016/j.quaint.2020.06.021|bibcode=2020QuInt.559...24G}}</ref> The [[1815 eruption of Mount Tambora|eruption of Mount Tambora in 1815]] had global climatic effects, making much of the Northern Hemisphere [[Year Without a Summer|without summer in 1816]],<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Gertisser|first1=R.|last2=Self|first2=S.|title=The great 1815 eruption of Tambora and future risks from large-scale volcanism|publisher=Wiley Online Library|journal=Geology Today|date=31 July 2015|volume=31|issue=4|pages=132–136|doi=10.1111/gto.12099|bibcode=2015GeolT..31..132G|url=http://eprints.keele.ac.uk/774/1/gertisser_2015.pdf}}</ref> while the [[1883 eruption of Krakatoa|eruption of Mount Krakatoa in 1883]] produced the loudest sound in recorded history, with additional worldwide impacts.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Harbowo|first=D.G.|title=An Assessment of the Scientific Value of Krakatoa, Indonesia from a Geoheritage Perspective|journal=Journal of Applied Geoscience and Engineering|date=30 June 2023|volume=2|number=1|pages=11–25|url=https://ejurnal.ung.ac.id/index.php/jage/article/view/19360|access-date=11 February 2025}}</ref> Recent catastrophic disasters due to seismic activity include the [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake]] and the [[2018 Sulawesi earthquake and tsunami|2018 Sulawesi earthquake]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Hu|first1=Y.|display-authors=etal|title=Tracing the 2018 Sulawesi Earthquake and Tsunami's Impact on Palu, Indonesia: A Remote Sensing Analysis|journal=Journal of Marine Science and Engineering|date=19 January 2025|volume=13|issue=1|page=178|doi=10.3390/jmse13010178|bibcode=2025JMSE...13..178H|doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== Biodiversity ===
{{Main|Fauna of Indonesia|Flora of Indonesia}}
<!----Galleries of images are generally discouraged in summary articles as they cause undue weight to one particular section and may cause accessibility problems.--->
[[File:202306 Varanus komodoensis.jpg|thumb|The [[Komodo dragon]] (''Varanus komodoensis'') is the [[National symbols of Indonesia|official national animal of Indonesia]]]]

Recognised by [[Conservation International]] as one of 17 [[megadiverse countries]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cbd.int/countries/profile?country=id|title=Indonesia - Country Profile|publisher=Convention on Biological Diversity|access-date=23 July 2025|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250519002820/https://www.cbd.int/countries/profile?country=id|archive-date=19 May 2025}}</ref> Indonesia hosts one of the world's highest levels of biodiversity due to its tropical climate, large size, and archipelagic geography. The country's flora and fauna include a mix of Asian and [[Australasian realm|Australasian]] species.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Brody|first=J.F.|display-authors=etal|title=Crossing the (Wallace) line: local abundance and distribution of mammals across biogeographic barriers|journal=Biotropica|publisher=Wiley Online Library|date=24 August 2017|volume=50|issue=1|pages=116–124|doi=10.1111/btp.12485}}</ref> The [[Sunda Shelf]] islands (Sumatra, Java, and Borneo) have a wealth of Asian fauna as they were once linked to mainland Asia,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bird|first1=M.I.|display-authors=etal|title=Palaeoenvironments of insular Southeast Asia during the Last Glacial Period: a savanna corridor in Sundaland?|journal=Quaternary Science Reviews|date=November 2005|volume=24|issue=20–21|pages=2228–2242|doi=10.1016/j.quascirev.2005.04.004|bibcode=2005QSRv...24.2228B}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Suraprasit|first1=K.|display-authors=etal|title=New fossil and isotope evidence for the Pleistocene zoogeographic transition and hypothesized savanna corridor in peninsular Thailand|journal=Quaternary Science Reviews|date=1 October 2019|volume=221|article-number=105861|doi=10.1016/j.quascirev.2019.105861|bibcode=2019QSRv..22105861S}}</ref> while Sulawesi, Lesser Sunda Islands, Maluku and Papua evolved unique ecosystems due to their separation from the continental landmasses.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Whitten|first1=T.|last2=Henderson|first2=G.|last3=Mustafa|first3=M.|title=The Ecology of Sulawesi|publisher=Periplus Editions Ltd.|year=1996|location=Hong Kong|isbn=978-962-593-075-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Monk|first1=K.A.|last2=Fretes|first2=Y.|last3=Reksodiharjo-Lilley|first3=G.|title=The Ecology of Nusa Tenggara and Maluku|publisher=Periplus Editions Ltd.|year=1996|location=Hong Kong|isbn=978-962-593-076-3}}</ref>

Indonesia boasts {{convert|54716|km|mi|abbr=off}} of coastline,<ref name="CIA" /> featuring extensive coastal and marine ecosystems, such as dunes and mangroves,<ref name="EcoSeas1" /> as well as coral reefs in the [[Coral Triangle]] that harbour the highest diversity of [[coral reef fish]] globally.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Sari|first1=K.P.|last2=Putri|first2=C.R.|last3=Ningsih|first3=K.A.|last4=Edelwis|first4=T.W.|last5=Alexis|first5=A.|title=Colorful Life on Indonesia's: Coral Reefs Reveals Fish|journal=BIO Web of Conferences|publisher=EDP Sciences|date=28 October 2024|volume=134|number=6013|page=06013|doi=10.1051/bioconf/202413406013|doi-access=free}}</ref> The [[Wallace Line]] marks the biogeographical divide between Asian and Australasian species, with the region between the Wallace and [[Weber Line]]s (called [[Wallacea]]) hosting particularly high levels of endemic biodiversity.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Voigt|first=M.|display-authors=etal|title=Emerging threats from deforestation and forest fragmentation in the Wallacea centre of endemism|journal=Environmental Research Letters|publisher=IOP Publishing Ltd|date=7 September 2021|volume=16|number=9|doi=10.1088/1748-9326/ac15cd|bibcode=2021ERL....16i4048V}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Wallace|first=A.R.|title=The Malay Archipelago|publisher=Periplus Editions|year=2000|orig-date=1869|isbn=978-962-593-645-1}}</ref><ref name="Severin">{{cite book|last=Severin|first=T.|title=The Spice Island Voyage: In Search of Wallace|publisher=Abacus Travel|year=1997|location=Great Britain|isbn=978-0-349-11040-0}}</ref> In addition, 83% of Southeast Asia's old-growth forests are located in Indonesia.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Estoque|first1=R.C.|last2=Ooba|first2=M.|last3=Avitabile|first3=V.|last4=Hijioka|first4=Y.|last5=DasGupta|first5=R.|last6=Togawa|first6=T.|last7=Murayama|first7=Y.|date=23 April 2019|title=The future of Southeast Asia's forests|journal=Nature Communications|language=en|volume=10|issue=1|page=1829|doi=10.1038/s41467-019-09646-4|pmid=31015425|pmc=6478739|bibcode=2019NatCo..10.1829E}}</ref>

=== Environment and conservation ===
{{Main|Environment of Indonesia|Conservation in Indonesia}}
{{See also|Protected areas of Indonesia|List of national parks of Indonesia|List of biosphere reserves of Indonesia}}
[[File:Unnamed Road, Kapisawar, Meos Mansar, Kabupaten Raja Ampat, Papua Bar. 98482, Indonesia - panoramio (84).jpg|thumb|[[Clown fish]] in coral of [[Raja Ampat islands]], one of Indonesia's over 100 marine protected areas]]
Indonesia experiences significant [[Environmental issues in Indonesia|environmental challenges]] due to peatland degradation, deforestation<ref name="deforest">{{cite journal|last1=Austin|first1=K.G.|last2=Schwantes|first2=A.|last3=Gu|first3=Y.|last4=Kasibhatla|first4=P.D.|date=1 February 2019|title=What causes deforestation in Indonesia?|journal=Environmental Research Letters|volume=14|issue=2|page=024007|doi=10.1088/1748-9326/aaf6db|bibcode=2019ERL....14b4007A|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Santoro|first1=A.|last2=Piras|first2=F.|last3=Yu|first3=Q.|title=Spatial analysis of deforestation in Indonesia in the period 1950–2017 and the role of protected areas|publisher=Springer Nature Link|journal=Biodiversity and Conservation|date=17 July 2023|volume=34|issue=9|pages=3119–3145|doi=10.1007/s10531-023-02679-8|hdl=2158/1323316|hdl-access=free}}</ref>{{efn|Indonesia's forest cover has declined from 87% in 1950 to 47.7% in 2023.<ref name="landuse">{{cite journal|last1=Tsujino|first1=R.|last2=Yumoto|first2=T.|last3=Kitamura|first3=S.|last4=Djamaluddin|first4=I.|last5=Darnaedi|first5=D.|date=November 2016|title=History of forest loss and degradation in Indonesia|journal=Land Use Policy|volume=57|pages=335–347|doi=10.1016/j.landusepol.2016.05.034|bibcode=2016LUPol..57..335T}}</ref><ref name="forestcov">{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.FRST.ZS?locations=ID|title=Forest area (% of land area) – Indonesia|publisher=World Bank|access-date=14 October 2025}}</ref>}} and the overexploitation of natural resources associated with industries such as logging and plantation agriculture,<ref name="landuse" /> particularly palm oil cultivation.<ref>{{cite book|first1=M.|last1=Colchester|display-authors=etal|title=Promised Land: Palm Oil and Land Acquisition in Indonesia - Implications for Local Communities and Indigenous Peoples|publisher=Forest Peoples Programme|date=6 November 2006|isbn=979-15188-0-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Adinugroho|first=W.C.|title=Contribution of forest degradation in Indonesia's GHG emissions: Profile and opportunity to improve its estimation accuracy|journal=IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science|publisher=IOP Publishing Ltd|date=2019|volume=399|number=12025|article-number=012025|doi=10.1088/1755-1315/399/1/012025|bibcode=2019E&ES..399a2025A|doi-access=free}}</ref> This situation threatens indigenous and endemic species, including the critically endangered [[Bali myna]],<ref>{{cite iucn|author=BirdLife International|title=''Leucopsar rothschildi''|volume=2016|article-number=e.T22710912A94267053|year=2016|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22710912A94267053.en}}</ref> [[Sumatran orangutan]],<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Kusrini|first1=M.D.|display-authors=etal|title=Research trends and outlook for Indonesia's most threatened land vertebrates|journal=Oryx|publisher=Cambridge University Press|date=27 August 2025|pages=1–11|doi=10.1017/S0030605324001480|doi-access=free}}</ref> and [[Javan rhinoceros]],<ref>{{Cite iucn|last1=van Strien|first1=N.J.|display-authors=etal|title=''Rhinoceros sondaicus''|volume=2008|article-number=e.T19495A8925965|date=2008|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2008.RLTS.T19495A8925965.en}}</ref> and it is often given a lower priority due to high poverty levels and weak, under-resourced governance.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Setyadharma|first=A.|title=The trade-off between Poverty and Environmental Degradation: Evidence from Indonesia|journal=IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science|publisher=IOP Publishing Ltd|date=2020|volume=448|number=12065|article-number=012065|doi=10.1088/1755-1315/448/1/012065|bibcode=2020E&ES..448a2065S|doi-access=free}}</ref> In academic discourse, some scholars have labelled the level of environmental degradation in Indonesia as ecocide.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aida|first1=M.|last2=Muthalib Tahar|first2=A.|last3=Davey|first3=O.|chapter=Ecocide in the International Law: Integration Between Environmental Rights and International Crime and Its Implementation in Indonesia|series=Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research|title=Proceedings of the 3rd Universitas Lampung International Conference on Social Sciences (ULICoSS 2022)|publisher=Atlantis Press|date=2 May 2023|volume=740|pages=572–584|doi=10.2991/978-2-38476-046-6_57|isbn=978-2-38476-045-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Setiyono|first1=J.|last2=Natalis|first2=A.|date=30 December 2021|title=Ecocides as a Serious Human Rights Violation: A Study on the Case of River Pollution by the Palm Oil Industry in Indonesia|journal=International Journal of Sustainable Development and Planning|language=en|volume=16|issue=8|pages=1465–1471|doi=10.18280/ijsdp.160807|doi-access=free}}</ref>

In response, Indonesia has designated 27 million hectares (14% of the land area) as [[Protected areas of Indonesia|protected areas]]<ref name="prtc">{{cite journal|last1=Nugraha|first1=R.T.|display-authors=etal|title=Evaluating the effectiveness of protected area management in Indonesia|journal=Oryx|publisher=Cambridge University Press|date=18 March 2024|volume=58|issue=4|pages=474–484|doi=10.1017/S003060532300145X|doi-access=free}}</ref> as of 2020, and has established an extensive network of marine reserves.<ref>{{Cite web|first=B.|last=Gokkon|date=19 May 2023|title=Study: Indonesia's extensive network of marine reserves are poorly managed|url=https://news.mongabay.com/2023/05/indonesia-maritime-marine-reserve-mpa-protected-area-management-funding/|access-date=2 January 2024|website=Mongabay Environmental News|language=en-US|archive-date=4 March 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250304224700/https://news.mongabay.com/2023/05/indonesia-maritime-marine-reserve-mpa-protected-area-management-funding/|url-status=live}}</ref> Its conservation framework includes 54 national parks, several of which are recognised as [[World Heritage Sites]], [[World Network of Biosphere Reserves]], and wetlands of international importance under the 1971 [[Ramsar Convention]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Nature-Based Tourism in Asia's Mountainous Protected Areas|editor-last1=Jones|editor-first1=T.E.|display-editors=etal|chapter=Indonesia's Mountainous Protected Areas: National Parks and Nature-Based Tourism|last1=Pamungkas|first1=W.|display-authors=etal|series=Geographies of Tourism and Global Change|publisher=Springer Nature Link|date=24 July 2021|pages=111–131|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-76833-1_6|isbn=978-0-470-65863-5}}</ref> These protected areas encompass a wide range of ecosystems, including tropical rainforests and mangroves, and are intended to safeguard biodiversity while supporting sustainable resource use and local livelihoods.<ref name="RIO">{{cite journal|last1=von Rintelen|first1=K.|display-authors=etal|title=A review of biodiversity-related issues and challenges in megadiverse Indonesia and other Southeast Asian countries|journal=Research Ideas and Outcomes|date=11 September 2017|volume=3|article-number=e20860|doi=10.3897/rio.3.e20860|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Despite these measures, conservation efforts are hindered by persistent obstacles.<ref name="CCII">{{cite book|title=Conservation Biology: Voices from the Tropics|editor-last1=Raven|editor-first1=H.P.|display-editors=etal|chapter=Conservation Challenges in Indonesia|last1=Prawiradilaga|first1=D.M.|display-authors=etal|date=12 July 2013|pages=134–141|doi=10.1002/9781118679838|isbn=978-0-470-65863-5}}</ref> Studies have noted that enforcement and management capacity vary across regions,<ref name="prtc" /> while pressures from deforestation, land-use change, and resource exploitation continue to affect ecosystems and wildlife populations.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Gunawan|first1=H.|display-authors=etal|title=A review of forest fragmentation in Indonesia under the DPSIR framework for biodiversity conservation strategies|journal=Global Ecology and Conservation|volume=51|date=June 2024|article-number=e02918|doi=10.1016/j.gecco.2024.e02918|doi-access=free|bibcode=2024GEcoC..5102918G}}</ref> Habitat loss and environmental degradation have contributed to the decline of numerous species, including several classified as threatened or endangered.<ref name="RIO" />

== Government and politics ==
{{Main|Politics of Indonesia}}
{{See also|Government of Indonesia}}
[[File:Ruang MPR.jpg|thumb|A presidential inauguration by the MPR in the [[MPR/DPR/DPD building|Parliament Complex]] Jakarta, [[First inauguration of Joko Widodo|2014]]|alt=]]
Indonesia is governed as a [[presidential republic]] under a constitutional framework that defines its political institutions. Following the [[Fall of Suharto|fall of the New Order in 1998]], sweeping [[amendments to the Constitution of Indonesia|amendments to the constitution]] restructured the state's executive, legislative, and judicial branches. The reforms preserved Indonesia’s [[unitary state]] framework while expanding decentralisation to regional governments.<ref name="Harijanti2006">{{cite journal|title=Indonesia: General elections test the amended Constitution and the new Constitutional Court|last1=Dwi Harijanti|first1=S.|last2=Lindsey|first2=T.|journal=International Journal of Constitutional Law|volume=4|issue=1|pages=138–150|doi=10.1093/icon/moi055|date=1 January 2006|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last1=Ardiansyah|first1=F.|last2=Marthen|first2=A.|last3=Amalia|first3=N.|title=Forest and land-use governance in a decentralized Indonesia|date=2015|doi=10.17528/cifor/005695|doi-access=free|hdl=10535/9986|hdl-access=free}}</ref> The [[President of Indonesia|president]] serves as [[head of state]], [[head of government]], and commander-in-chief of the [[Indonesian National Armed Forces]] (''Tentara Nasional Indonesia'', TNI) and oversees domestic and foreign policies. Presidents may serve up to two consecutive five-year terms.<ref>(2002), ''The Fourth Amendment of 1945 Indonesia Constitution'', Chapter III – The Executive Power, Article 7.</ref>

Legislative authority is vested in the [[People's Consultative Assembly]] (''Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat'', MPR), Indonesia's highest representative body that is responsible for amending the constitution, inaugurating and impeaching the president, and formalising state policies.<ref>Chapter II, Article 3, 3rd Clause of the 1945 Constitution.</ref><ref name="UUD45">{{cite web|url=http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_protect/---protrav/---ilo_aids/documents/legaldocument/wcms_174556.pdf|title=The 1945 Constitution of the Republic of Indonesia|publisher=International Labour Organization|access-date=11 October 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011113409/http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_protect/---protrav/---ilo_aids/documents/legaldocument/wcms_174556.pdf|archive-date=11 October 2017}}</ref> It consists of two houses: the [[People's Representative Council]] (''Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat'', DPR), which has 580 members and handles legislation and executive oversight, and the [[Regional Representative Council]] (''Dewan Perwakilan Daerah'', DPD), which has 152 members and focuses on regional matters.<ref name="INAlegis">{{cite journal|last1=Sinukaban|first1=A.J.|title=The Existence of Regional Representative Boards in the Indonesian Representative Institution System|journal=Journal of Law Science|date=30 January 2020|volume=2|number=1|pages=15–23|doi=10.35335/jls.v2i1.1607|doi-access=free}}</ref> Since 1998, reforms have expanded the governance role of the DPR.<ref name="Harijanti2006" />

[[Judiciary of Indonesia|Judicial authority]] is exercised by several key institutions. The [[Supreme Court of Indonesia|Supreme Court]] (''Mahkamah Agung'') is the highest judicial body, handling final appeals and case reviews.<ref name="courts">{{cite journal|last1=Hamzah|first1=Hanim|last2=Narang|first2=Agnesya M.|last3=Yusari|first3=Anggi|title=Legal systems in Indonesia: overview|journal=Documents|date=2021|url=https://elischolar.library.yale.edu/ypfs-documents/11551/}}</ref> The [[Constitutional Court of Indonesia|Constitutional Court]] (''Mahkamah Konstitusi'') adjudicates constitutional and political matters,<ref name="courts" /> while the country's Religious Court (''Pengadilan Agama'') oversees [[Sharia|Islamic]] personal law cases.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Cammack|first1=Mark|last2=Feener|first2=R.|title=The Islamic Legal System in Indonesia|journal=Washington International Law Journal|date=2012|volume=21|issue=1|page=13|url=https://digitalcommons.law.uw.edu/wilj/vol21/iss1/5/}}</ref> Additionally, the [[Judicial Commission of Indonesia|Judicial Commission]] (''Komisi Yudisial'') monitors judicial performance, and works to uphold the integrity and independence of the judiciary.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Adolf|first1=Huala|last2=Wibowo|first2=Gatot Dwi Hendro|title=STRENGTHENING THE POSITION AND FUNCTION OF THE JUDICIAL COMMISSION IN THE CONSTITUTIONAL SYSTEM OF THE REPUBLIC OF INDONESIA|journal=Journal of Liberty and International Affairs|date=31 January 2019|volume=4|issue=3|pages=99–105|id={{CEEOL|751074}} {{ProQuest|2441571599}}|url=https://e-jlia.com/index.php/jlia/article/view/135}}</ref>

=== Parties and elections ===
{{Main|List of political parties in Indonesia|Elections in Indonesia}}

{{multiple image
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| image1 = Prabowo Subianto 2024 official portrait.jpg
| caption1 = [[Prabowo Subianto]]<br />{{small|[[President of Indonesia|President]]}}
| image2 = Gibran Rakabuming 2024 official portrait.jpg
| caption2 = [[Gibran Rakabuming]]<br />{{small|[[Vice President of Indonesia|Vice President]]}}
}}

Since 1999, electoral politics in Indonesia have been characterised by a competitive [[multi-party system]] in which no party has secured an outright majority of seats in the [[Elections in Indonesia|legislative elections]].<ref name="election">{{cite journal|last1=Pepinsky|first1=Thomas B.|title=Cleavages, Institutions, and Democracy in Indonesia: The 2024 Elections in Comparative Perspective|journal=Journal of Current Southeast Asian Affairs|date=December 2025|volume=44|issue=3|pages=345–365|doi=10.1177/18681034251349467}}</ref> Political parties are commonly classified as secular-nationalist or Islamic-oriented,{{efn|The former includes the [[Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle]] (PDI-P), the [[Party of the Functional Groups]] (''Golkar''), and the [[Great Indonesia Movement Party]] (''Gerindra'' Party); and the latter includes the centrist [[National Awakening Party]] (PKB) and the Islamist [[Prosperous Justice Party]] (PKS).}}<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Fossati|first1=Diego|title=The Resurgence of Ideology in Indonesia: Political Islam, Aliran and Political Behaviour|journal=Journal of Current Southeast Asian Affairs|date=August 2019|volume=38|issue=2|pages=119–148|doi=10.1177/1868103419868400}}</ref> though political competition is typically shaped less by ideological commitments than by pragmatic coalition-building suited to prevailing political conditions.<ref name="ParPol">{{cite web|url=https://www.thejakartapost.com/opinion/2023/09/15/these-unholy-alliances-undermine-indonesian-democracy.html|title=These unholy alliances undermine Indonesian democracy|publisher=The Jakarta Post|last=Bayuni|first=E.|date=15 September 2023|access-date=23 January 2025|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250123164829/https://www.thejakartapost.com/opinion/2023/09/15/these-unholy-alliances-undermine-indonesian-democracy.html|archive-date=23 January 2025}}</ref> [[Cartel party theory|Power sharing among parties]] is widespread,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Slater|first1=Dan|title=Party Cartelization, Indonesian-Style: Presidential Power-Sharing and the Contingency of Democratic Opposition|journal=Journal of East Asian Studies|date=March 2018|volume=18|issue=1|pages=23–46|doi=10.1017/jea.2017.26|doi-access=free}}</ref> and governing coalitions are often oversized.<ref name="election" /> Unlike in many democracies, parties frequently establish alliances before elections rather than afterward.<ref name="ParPol" />

Indonesia held its first [[1955 Indonesian legislative election|general election in 1955]], and since [[2004 Indonesian presidential election|2004]], the president and the legislature has been directly elected for a five-year term. Members of the DPR are elected through party-based contests, while members of the DPD are elected on a non-partisan basis to represent provincial constituencies.<ref name="INAlegis" /><ref name="Harijanti2006" /> Indonesia’s archipelagic geography and dispersed population make its national elections among the most logistically complex in the world. Ballots and electoral materials must be transported by land, sea, and air to remote islands, mountainous areas, and isolated communities.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Erviana|first1=H.Y.|display-authors=etal|title=Election Logistics Distribution Strategy in Indonesia: A Literature Review|journal=International Journal of Integrative Sciences|publisher=Formosa Publisher|date=December 2024|volume=3|number=12|pages=1375–1386|url=https://journal.formosapublisher.org/index.php/ijis/article/view/12772}}</ref>

=== Administrative divisions ===
{{Main|Subdivisions of Indonesia}}
Indonesia is administratively divided into several levels of regional government. At the highest subnational level are [[Provinces of Indonesia|provinces]], each governed by an elected [[List of current governors in Indonesia|governor]] (''gubernur'') and a provincial legislature (''Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Daerah'', DPRD). Provinces are subdivided into [[Regency (Indonesia)|regencies]] (''kabupaten'') and cities (''kota''), headed by elected regents (''bupati'') and mayors (''wali kota'') and supported by local legislatures (''DPRD Kabupaten/Kota''); since the implementation of regional autonomy in 1999, these units have served as the primary administrative level responsible for most public services.<ref name="OtonomiDaerah"/> Below regencies and cities are [[Districts of Indonesia|districts]] (''kecamatan''), which in turn are subdivided into [[Villages of Indonesia|villages]],<ref name="villages">{{cite journal|last=Kusumastuti|title=The Old Phase of Javanese Villages as an Early Form of Participatory Democratic Governance in Indonesia|journal=Journal of Regional and City Planning|publisher=Bandung Institute of Technology|date=6 December 2017|volume=28|number=3|pages=219–236|doi=10.5614/jrcp.2017.28.3.5}}</ref> the lowest level of administration, comprising self-governing rural villages (''desa'') and administratively subordinate urban villages (''kelurahan'').<ref>{{cite thesis|last=Syukri|first=M.|title=Participatory Governance in the New Developmental State: Assessing Its Efficacy for Marginal Groups in Indonesia|type=PhD thesis|publisher=The University of Western Australia|year=2021|doi=10.26182/qt3z-zx90}}</ref>

Villages are further organised into neighbourhood and community associations (''rukun tetangga'', RT, and ''rukun warga'', RW),<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Yuliastuti|first1=N.|display-authors=etal|title=The Role of Community Institutions "Rukun Tetangga" In Social Housing, Indonesia|journal=International Journal of Humanities and Social Science|publisher=Brooklyn Research and Publishing Institute|date=October 2015|volume=5|number=10|pages=44–52}}</ref> with additional local subdivisions such as hamlets (''dusun'' or ''dukuh'') in Java.<ref name="villages" /> Nine provinces possess [[Autonomous administrative division|special autonomous status]] owing to historical, cultural, or political circumstances. These include [[Aceh]], which has the authority to implement aspects of Islamic law;<ref>{{cite journal|last=Miller|first=M.A.|title=The Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam law: a serious response to Acehnese separatism?|journal=Asian Ethnicity|volume=5|issue=3|year=2004|pages=333–351|doi=10.1080/1463136042000259789}}</ref> [[Jakarta]], whose designation stems from its role as the national capital;<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Okamoto|first1=M.|title=Jakartans, Institutionally Volatile|journal=Journal of Current Southeast Asian Affairs|publisher=All Law Journal|date=1 April 2014|volume=33|issue=1|pages=7–27|doi=10.1177/186810341403300102|doi-access=free}}</ref> and [[Yogyakarta]], which retains a hereditary sultanate within the republican system.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Wiszowaty|first1=M.M.|last2=Wahyuni|first2=I.|title=Monarchy in the Republic – Sultanate of Yogyakarta in the Republic of Indonesia|journal=Constitutional Law Review|publisher=Adam Marszałek Publishing House|date=27 December 2023|volume=76|number=6|pages=321–336|doi=10.15804/ppk.2023.06.23}}</ref> Special autonomy is also granted to the six provinces in [[Western New Guinea#Current government|Papua]] to increase local self-governance and address concerns of separatism and development.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Emilianus|first1=J.E.|last2=Lumbuun|first2=T.G.|last3=Latif|first3=A.|last4=Sinaga|first4=P.|title=Protection of local wisdom of papua's original people by the papua people's assembly in Indonesia|journal=International Journal of Judicial Law|publisher=All Law Journal|date=2024|volume=3|issue=4|pages=10–15|doi=10.54660/IJJL.2024.3.4.10-15}}</ref>

{{transcluded section|source=Template:Indonesia provinces labelled map}}
{{center|{{Indonesia provinces labelled map}}}}

=== Foreign relations ===
{{Main|Foreign relations of Indonesia}}
[[File:ASEAN HQ 1.jpg|thumb|Jakarta hosts the headquarters of [[ASEAN]] and functions as the organisation's main diplomatic hub.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Nair|first1=Deepak|title=Learning Diplomacy|chapter=Learning Diplomacy: Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar and Vietnam Diplomats in ASEAN|date=2016|pages=1–28|doi=10.1355/9789814762700-003|isbn=978-981-4762-70-0}}</ref>]]

Indonesia follows an "independent and active" (''<span lang="id" dir="ltr">bebas aktif</span>'') foreign policy, a term coined in 1948 by the country's first vice-president, [[Mohammad Hatta]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Laksamana|first1=E.|last2=Alexandra|first2=L.|title=Hatta and Indonesia's Independent and Active Foreign Policy: Retrospect and Prospect|publisher=ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute|journal=Contemporary Southeast Asia|date=August 2023|volume=45|issue=2|pages=327–330|doi=10.1355/cs45-2k|jstor=27241198}}</ref> With this policy, the country aims to navigate great power politics, maintain autonomy, and avoid alignment.<ref>{{cite book|last=Shekhar|first=V.|date=26 October 2022|title=Indonesia's Great-Power Management in the Indo-Pacific, The Balancing Behavior of a "Dove State"|url=https://www.nbr.org/publication/indonesias-great-power-management-in-the-indo-pacific-the-balancing-behavior-of-a-dove-state/|publisher=The National Burreau of Asian Research|page=53|volume=17|number=4}}</ref> Foreign policy is directed by the president<ref>Chapter III - The Executive Power, Articles 4, 11 and 13 of the Amended 1945 Constitution</ref><ref name="UUD45" /> and implemented by the [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Indonesia)|Ministry of Foreign Affairs]],<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Setiawan|first1=A.|display-authors=etal|title=Model of Pro-People Foreign Policy as Indonesia's Response Toward Better Citizen Protection|publisher=SAGE|journal=Central European Journal of International and Security Studies|date=2018|volume=12|issue=4|pages=450–472}}</ref> with the parliament providing a role in oversight.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=AWJ|first1=Fransiskus|title=Procedural Problems in Indonesia's Treaty Ratification Process: A Comparative Analysis|publisher=Universitas Muhammadiyah Yogyakarta|journal=Indonesian Comparative Law Review|date=2021|volume=4|issue=1|pages=26–33|doi=10.18196/iclr.v4i1.12073}}</ref> Indonesia is considered to be a [[middle power]] in global politics.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Nandyatama|first1=R.W.|last2=Ardhani|first2=I.|last3=Alvian|first3=R.A.|title=Middle power legitimation strategies: the case of Indonesia and the ASEAN Outlook on the Indo-Pacific|journal=Australian Journal of International Affairs|publisher=Routledge|date=2 July 2023|volume=77|issue=4|pages=359–379|doi=10.1080/10357718.2023.2228709}}</ref>

As the largest country in Southeast Asia and a founding member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations ([[ASEAN]]), Indonesia considers ASEAN the cornerstone of its foreign policy.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Indonesia and the ASEAN outlook on the Indo-Pacific|journal=International Affairs|publisher=Oxford Academic|last=Anwar|first=D.F.|volume=96|issue=1|date=1 January 2020|pages=111–129|doi=10.1093/ia/iiz223}}</ref> Outside of its immediate region, Indonesia has [[Indonesia–Palestine relations|actively supported Palestine]]<ref>{{cite report|title=Indonesia and the Palestinian Cause|last=Peterson|first=D.|date=25 July 2025|work=Turkey/Middle East Program|publisher=French Institute of International Relations}}</ref> while refraining from formal [[Indonesia–Israel relations|diplomatic relations with Israel]], although discreet ties exist.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Yegar|first=M.|title=The Republic of Indonesia and Israel|journal=Israel Affairs|date=8 August 2006|volume=12|issue=1|pages=136–158|doi=10.1080/13537120500382016}}</ref> Since the start of the 21st century, Indonesia has developed close [[China–Indonesia relations|relations with China]], primarily relating to trade and investments in infrastructure,<ref>{{cite journal|last=Peterson|first=D.|title=China's Power Play in Indonesia: Infrastructure Investment and Territorial Incursions|journal=Social Science Research on Southeast Asia|publisher=Open Edition Journals|date=2023|volume=43|issue=41|pages=223–247|doi=10.4000/moussons.10736|doi-access=free}}</ref> while at the same time maintaining a strategic [[Indonesia–United States relations|partnership with the United States]], focusing on economic cooperation, security, and counterterrorism efforts.<ref>{{cite report|last=Ordaniel|first=J.|title=The United States and Indonesia: Re-converging Security Interests in the Indo-Pacific|work=Issues & Insights|publisher=Pacific Forum|date=September 2021|volume=21|number=2}}</ref>

Indonesia has been [[Indonesia and the United Nations|a member of the United Nations]] since 1950, with a brief interruption in 1965,{{efn|name=fn2|During the [[Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation]] in 1965, Indonesia withdrew from the UN due to the latter's election to the [[United Nations Security Council]], although it returned 18 months later. It marked the first time in UN history that a member state had attempted a withdrawal.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Withdrawal from the United Nations: the Indonesian Intermezzo|journal=American Journal of International Law|publisher=Cambridge University Press|last=Schwelb|first=E.|volume=61|issue=3|date=July 1967|pages=661–672|doi=10.2307/2197461|jstor=2197461}}</ref>}} and is a founding member of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]] (NAM), the [[Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]] (OIC) and the [[East Asia Summit]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Indonesia's Ascent: Power, Leadership, and the Regional Order|date=25 February 2015|isbn=978-1-137-39741-6|last1=Roberts|first1=C.|last2=Habir|first2=A.|last3=Sebastian|first3=L.|publisher=Springer|doi=10.1057/9781137397416}}</ref> Indonesia also participates in multilateral economic institutions, including [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation|APEC]] and the [[World Trade Organization]] (WTO). The country has been a humanitarian and development aid recipient since the late 1960s,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Chowdhury|first1=A.|last2=Sugema|first2=I.|title=How Significant and Effective has Foreign Aid to Indonesia been?|journal=Centre for International Economic Studies Working Papers|publisher=IDEAS|date=January 2005}}</ref> but has established its own foreign aid agency in 2019.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ariyanto Azis|first1=A.|last2=Rizky Satriawangsa|first2=B.N.|chapter=From Recipient to Donor: Indonesia's Motives in Giving Foreign Aid to South Pacific 2015-2023|series=Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research|title=Proceedings of the World Conference on Governance and Social Sciences (WCGSS 2023)|publisher=Atlantis Press|date=29 April 2024|volume=843|pages=49–63|doi=10.2991/978-2-38476-236-1_7|isbn=978-2-38476-235-4}}</ref> It also plays a role in maintaining international peace and security, deploying military and police personnel to multiple UN peacekeeping missions since 1957, including [[United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon|Lebanon]], the [[MONUSCO|Democratic Republic of the Congo]] and [[United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali|Mali]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/sites/default/files/3-country-and-mission.pdf|title=Summary of Contributions to UN Peacekeeping by Country, Mission and Post|publisher=United Nations Peacekeeping|date=31 August 2019|access-date=23 January 2025|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240926183651/https://peacekeeping.un.org/sites/default/files/3-country-and-mission.pdf|archive-date=26 September 2024}}</ref>

=== Military ===
{{Main|Indonesian National Armed Forces|Military history of Indonesia}}

 [[File:Taruna akmil.jpg|thumb|left|[[Indonesian Military Academy]] cadets]]

The [[Indonesian National Armed Forces]] (TNI) consists of the [[Indonesian Army|Army]] (TNI-AD), [[Indonesian Navy|Navy]] (TNI-AL) (including the [[Indonesian Marine Corps|Marine Corps]]), and [[Indonesian Air Force|Air Force]] (TNI-AU), with active personnel numbering approximately 300,400 in the Army, 65,000 in the Navy, and 30,100 in the Air Force.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.iiss.org/publications/the-military-balance/the-military-balance-2023|title=The Military Balance 2023|author1=International Institute for Strategic Studies|author-link1=International Institute for Strategic Studies|date=15 February 2023|publisher=[[Routledge]]|location=[[London]]|page=254|isbn=978-1-032-50895-5}}</ref> Established during the [[Indonesian National Revolution]], the TNI initially engaged in guerrilla warfare alongside informal militias,<ref>{{cite journal|last=Reza|first=B.I.|title=The Total People's Defense and Security System: Problems of State-Sponsored Militia in Indonesia|journal=Indonesia Law Review|publisher=Djokosoetono Research Center|date=31 August 2017|volume=7|number=2|pages=155–177|doi=10.15742/ilrev.v7n2.319}}</ref> and eventually developed a territorial structure that focuses on maintaining domestic stability and deterring foreign threats.<ref name="12YMR">{{cite report|last1=Sebastian|first1=L.C.|last2=Iisgindarsah|first2=|title=Assessing 12-Year Military Reform in Indonesia: Major Strategic Gaps for the Next Stage of Reform|type=working paper|number=227|publisher=S. Rajaratnam School of International Studies, Nanyang Technological University|date=6 April 2011}}</ref> 

During the New Order, the military exercised a direct political role under a doctrine known as "dual function" (''[[dwifungsi]]'').<ref>{{cite book|last1=Djiwandono|first1=J.S.|title=Civil-Military Relations in Indonesia: The Case of ABRI's Dual Function|publisher=Routledge|year=1998|pages=45–58|edition=1|isbn=978-0-429-50157-9|doi=10.4324/9780429501579-4}}</ref> Reforms in 1998 removed the military's overt political involvement, although it continued to retain political influence.<ref name="12YMR" /><ref>{{cite book|last1=Mietzner|first1=Marcus|title=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Politics|chapter=Indonesia: The Military's Transformation from Praetorian Ruler to Presidential Coalition Partner|date=2020|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.013.1827|isbn=978-0-19-022863-7}}</ref> In addition, the military's involvement in commercial enterprises has drawn scrutiny.<ref>{{cite book|last1=McCulloch|first1=L.|title=The Military as an Economic Actor|chapter=Trifungsi: The Role of the Indonesian Military in Business|series=International Political Economy Series|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan, London|editor-last1=Brömmelhörster|editor-first1=J.|editor-last2=Paes|editor-first2=W.C.|date=1 October 2013|pages=94–123|doi=10.1057/9781403944009_6|isbn=978-1-349-43323-0}}</ref> Defence spending has remained below 1% since 2007,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/MS.MIL.XPND.GD.ZS?end=2023&locations=ID&start=2007&view=chart|title=Military expenditure (% of GDP) - Indonesia|publisher=World Bank|access-date=11 February 2026}}</ref> a relatively modest allocation for a country of Indonesia's geographic scale and strategic challenges.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Matthews|first1=R.|display-authors=etal|title=Indonesia's defense acquisition strategy|journal=Asian Security|date=6 July 205|volume=21|issue=2|pages=125–148|doi=10.1080/14799855.2025.2527088}}</ref>

Since independence, Indonesia has faced separatist movements and insurgencies, notably in [[Insurgency in Aceh|Aceh]] and [[Papuan conflict|Papua]].{{sfn|Friend|2003|pp=269–273, 477–480}}<ref>{{citation|last1=Rabasa|first1=A.|last2=Haseman|first2=J.|title=The Military and Democracy in Indonesia: Challenges, Politics, and Power|chapter=Separatist Movements in Aceh and Papua|publisher=RAND Corporation|year=2002|edition=1st|pages=99–110|isbn=978-0-8330-3402-1}}</ref> While the former ended in 2005,<ref name="AcehPeace" /> the latter has continued alongside implementation of regional autonomy<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Rusdianto|first1=A.|display-authors=etal|title=Implementation of Special Autonomy Policy in Papua Province|journal=International Journal of Progressive Sciences and Technologies|date=June 2023|volume=39|number=1|pages=457–464|doi=10.52155/ijpsat.v39.1.5404|doi-access=free}}</ref> and well-documented human rights abuses by the TNI.{{efn|These include extrajudicial killings, forced disappearances and restrictions on freedom of expression, as reported by Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch, and the UNHRC.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Baird|first=N.|title=The Universal Periodic Review and West Papua: Beyond Invisibility?|journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights|publisher=Brill|date=1 April 2024|volume=32|issue=1|pages=24–60|doi=10.1163/15718115-bja10158}}</ref>}} Indonesia's historical military engagements include [[West New Guinea dispute|conflicts with the Netherlands]] over [[Dutch New Guinea]], opposition to the British-backed creation of Malaysia (''[[Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation|Konfrontasi]]''), the anti-communist mass killings, and the [[Indonesian invasion of East Timor|invasion of East Timor]], which was Indonesia's largest military operation.<ref>Indonesia. Department of Foreign Affairs. ''Decolonization in East Timor''. Jakarta: Department of Information, Republic of Indonesia, 1977. {{OCLC|4458152}}.</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Budiardjo|first1=C.|first2=L.S.|last2=Liong|title=The War against East Timor|location=London|publisher=Zed Books|year=1984|page=22|isbn=0-86232-228-6}}</ref>

=== Law enforcement and human rights ===
{{Main|Indonesian National Police|Human rights in Indonesia}}
[[File:Jakarta riot 14 May 1998.jpg|thumb|Riots on the streets of Jakarta on 14 May 1998, part of a [[May 1998 Indonesia riots|wave of civil unrest]] that involved attacks on property and individuals associated with the ethnic Chinese community.]]
Law enforcement in Indonesia is primarily carried out by the [[Indonesian National Police]] (POLRI), which operates under the direct authority of the President. POLRI is tasked with law enforcement and maintaining public order and security, alongside various other agencies, supervised and trained by POLRI, that perform policing functions for specific public services.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Novitasari|first1=Salwa Aulia|last2=Andiani|first2=Paramita|title=Analysis of The Regulation of The Curator's Professional Code of Ethics in Carrying Out His Duties as the Person in Charge of a Bankrupt Company According to The Applicable Law in Indonesia|journal=Eastasouth Proceeding of Humanities and Social Sciences|date=13 November 2023|volume=1|issue=1|pages=53–61|doi=10.58812/aslsh.v1i01.19|doi-broken-date=9 January 2026|url=https://asj.eastasouth-institute.com/index.php/ephss/article/view/19}}</ref>

The exercise of law enforcement and state authority has intersected with longstanding human rights concerns. Indonesia has a documented history of racial discrimination and conflicts, affecting [[Discrimination against Chinese Indonesians|Chinese Indonesians]], [[Indigenous people of New Guinea|Papuans]],<ref>{{cite journal|last=Tanasaldy|first=T.|title=From Official to Grassroots Racism: Transformation of Anti-Chinese Sentiment in Indonesia|journal=The Political Quarterly|publisher=Wiley Online Library|date=12 July 2022|volume=93|issue=2|pages=460–468|doi=10.1111/1467-923X.13148}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Kusumaryati|first1=Veronika|title=#Papuanlivesmatter: black consciousness and political movements in West Papua|journal=Critical Asian Studies|date=2 October 2021|volume=53|issue=4|pages=453–475|doi=10.1080/14672715.2021.1963794}}</ref> and populations impacted by the government's [[transmigration program]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Indonesian Crisis: A Human Development Perspective|first=Aris|last=Anata|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies|year=2003|pages=229–230}}</ref> Other minorities, including religious minorities and [[LGBTQ rights in Indonesia|LGBTQ individuals]], also experience discrimination and social hostility.<ref name="RIP" /><ref name="mino" /><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Rodríguez|first1=Diego García|last2=Murtagh|first2=Ben|title=Situating anti-LGBT moral panics in Indonesia: Homophobia, criminalisation, acceptance, and religiosity|journal=Indonesia and the Malay World|date=2 January 2022|volume=50|issue=146|pages=1–9|doi=10.1080/13639811.2022.2038871}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Tumanan|first1=Perdian|title=The History of LGBTQ Discourses in Indonesia|journal=InterViews: An Interdisciplinary Journal in Social Sciences|date=31 July 2020|volume=7|issue=1|pages=73–80|id={{CORE output|328814597}}|doi=10.36061/IV.7.1.20.73.80|doi-broken-date=9 January 2026}}</ref>

Human rights oversight in Indonesia is shaped by social, historical, and institutional factors, with varying outcomes across regions. The [[National Commission on Human Rights]] (''Komnas HAM''), established in 1993, serves as the primary independent body responsible for monitoring and investigating abuses.<ref>{{cite act|type=Presidential Decree|index=50|date=7 July 1993|legislature=[[List of presidents of Indonesia|President of Indonesia]]|title=Decree of the President of Republic of Indonesia Number 50 Year 1993 on the National Commission on Human Rights|url=https://www.refworld.org/legal/decreees/natlegbod/1993/en/51627}}</ref> The commission is generally regarded as an important institutional safeguard, though observers note limitations in its authority and capacity to ensure compliance.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Setiawan|first1=K.|title=From Hope to Disillusion|journal=Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences of Southeast Asia|date=2016|volume=172|issue=1|pages=1–32|doi=10.1163/22134379-17201002|doi-access=free}}</ref>

== Economy ==
{{Main|Economy of Indonesia|Agriculture in Indonesia|Poverty in Indonesia}}
[[File:Perkebunan kelapa sawit milik rakyat (1).JPG|thumb|right|[[Palm oil]] plantation in [[Kampar Regency]], [[Riau]]. Indonesia is the world's largest producer of palm oil.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Pacheco|first1=P.|last2=Gnych|first2=S.|last3=Dermawan|first3=A.|last4=Komarudin|first4=H.|last5=Okarda|first5=B.|date=2017|title=The Palm Oil Global Value Chain: Implications for Economic Growth and Social and Environmental Sustainability|journal=Center for International Forestry Research – Working Paper|volume=220}}</ref>]]
[[File:Morowali Industrial Park.jpg|thumb|[[Morowali Industrial Park]] hosting primarily [[Nickel mining in Indonesia|nickel-related industries]] in [[Morowali Regency]], [[Central Sulawesi]]. Indonesia is the world's largest producer of nickel.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Michel|first1=Thibault|title=The Prospects of Indonesia's Nickel Boom Amidst a Systemic Challenge from Coal|date=May 2024|publisher=Institut Francais des Relations Internationales|isbn=979-10-373-0864-1|url=https://www.ifri.org/sites/default/files/migrated_files/documents/atoms/files/ifri_michel_indonesia_nickel_boom_2024.pdf|page=3}}</ref>]]

Indonesia operates a [[mixed economy]] where the private sector and the government play significant roles.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.indonesia-investments.com/culture/economy/item177|title=Economy of Indonesia|publisher=Indonesia Investments|access-date=5 August 2025}}</ref> As the only [[G20]] member state in Southeast Asia,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://g20.org/about-g20/g20-members/|title=G20 Members|publisher=G20|access-date=20 January 2025|archive-date=10 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150210155549/https://g20.org/about-g20/g20-members/}}</ref> it has the region's largest economy by GDP (ranking inside [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|top 20 in nominal terms]] and [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|top 10 by purchasing power parity]]) and is classified as a [[newly industrialised country]]. In recent years, services and industry have accounted for the largest shares of gross domestic product, while agriculture remains a major source of employment,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://globaledge.msu.edu/countries/indonesia/economy/|title=Indonesia: Economy|publisher=Global Edge|date=2022|access-date=23 March 2025|archive-date=22 January 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250122054227/https://globaledge.msu.edu/countries/indonesia/economy|url-status=live}}</ref> particularly outside urban centres.

The structure of the economy has [[Economic history of Indonesia|shifted considerably since independence]]. It was initially mostly agrarian before undergoing industrialisation and urbanisation from the late 1960s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rba.gov.au/publications/bulletin/2011/dec/pdf/bu-1211-4.pdf|title=The Growth and Development of the Indonesian Economy|last1=Elias|first1=S.|last2=Noone|first2=C.|publisher=Reserve Bank of Australia|date=December 2011|access-date=27 December 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161227203419/http://www.rba.gov.au/publications/bulletin/2011/dec/pdf/bu-1211-4.pdf|archive-date=27 December 2016}}</ref> Economic diversification accelerated in the 1980s and 1990s as manufactured exports expanded, contributing to rapid growth and poverty reduction.<ref>{{cite report|title=Indonesia: Research & Development Financing|publisher=The World Bank|date=January 2013|page=4}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Nugroho|first1=Anda|last2=Amir|first2=Hidayat|last3=Maududy|first3=Irsyan|last4=Marlina|first4=Irma|title=Poverty eradication programs in Indonesia: Progress, challenges and reforms|journal=Journal of Policy Modeling|date=November 2021|volume=43|issue=6|pages=1204–1224|doi=10.1016/j.jpolmod.2021.05.002}}</ref> This growth was interrupted by the [[1997 Asian financial crisis|Asian financial crisis of the late 1990s]], which caused a sharp economic contraction.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Titiheruw|first1=I.S.|last2=Atje|first2=R.|date=2008|title=Managing Capital Flows: The Case of Indonesia|journal=Asian Development Bank Institute Discussion Paper|volume=94|pages=9–10}}</ref>  Since the early 2000s, a combination of banking reforms,<ref name="08GFC" /><ref>{{cite web|last=Temple|first=J.|date=15 August 2001|title=Growing into trouble: Indonesia after 1966|url=http://www.efm.bris.ac.uk/economics/working_papers/pdffiles/dp01522.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161227202512/http://www.efm.bris.ac.uk/economics/working_papers/pdffiles/dp01522.pdf|archive-date=27 December 2016|access-date=27 December 2016|publisher=University of Bristol}}</ref> fiscal discipline, and flexible exchange-rate policies has supported a steady recovery, with growth rates generally remaining stable in the following two decades,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2017/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=42&pr.y=11&sy=2007&ey=2017&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=536&s=NGDP_RPCH&grp=0&a=|title=World Economic Outlook Database: Report for Selected Countries and Subjects – Indonesia|publisher=International Monetary Fund|date=October 2024|access-date=21 January 2025|archive-date=3 April 2026|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260403031330/https://www.imf.org/en/publications/weo/weo-database/2024/october/weo-report?c=536%2C&s=NGDP_RPCH%2C&sy=2004&ey=2024&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1|url-status=live}}</ref> including after the [[2008 financial crisis]] and the [[COVID-19 pandemic]].<ref name="08GFC">{{cite journal|last1=Chatib Basri|first1=M.|last2=Rahardja|first2=S.|title=The Indonesian Economy amidst the Global Crisis: Good Policy and Good Luck|journal=ASEAN Economic Bulletin|publisher=ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute|date=April 2010|volume=27|issue=1|pages=77–97|doi=10.1355/AE27-1E|jstor=41317110}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Indonesia Economic Prospects, June 2022: Financial Deepening for Stronger Growth and Sustainable Recovery|publisher=WorldBank|date=31 May 2022|hdl=10986/37584}}</ref>

Despite sustained growth, a range of structural constraints remain, including uneven regional development,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Tjahja Nugraha|first1=A.|last2=Prayitno|first2=G.|title=Regional Disparity in Western and Eastern Indonesia|journal=International Journal of Economics and Business Administration|date=2020|volume=8|issue=4|pages=101–110|doi=10.35808/ijeba/572|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2015/12/08/indonesia-rising-divide|title=Indonesia's Rising Divide|publisher=World Bank|date=7 December 2015|access-date=14 December 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250208122342/https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2015/12/08/indonesia-rising-divide|archive-date=8 February 2025}}</ref> a large informal sector,<ref>{{citation|last1=Ablaza|first1=C.|display-authors=etal|title=Indonesia's Informal Economy: Measurement, Evidence, and a Research Agenda|work=Poverty and Equity Global Practice|publisher=World Bank Group|date=November 2023|number=10608}}</ref> low productivity,<ref>{{citation|title=The Pursuit for Productivity: Rebuilding The Nation's Missing Multiplier|work=IBC Navigator|date=16 June 2025|publisher=The IBC Institute|volume=7}}</ref> infrastructure limitations,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Lenny Indah|first1=N.|display-authors=etal|date=July 2024|title=Infrastructure Development Policy and Economic Development Inequality Among Regions in Indonesia|journal=International Journal of Social Science Humanity & Management Research|volume=3|issue=7|pages=900–905|doi=10.58806/ijsshmr.2024.v3i7n10|doi-access=free}}</ref> and regulatory and governance hurdles.<ref>{{cite report|title=Improving the Business and Investment Climate in Indonesia|last1=Moccero|first1=D.|date=2008|series=OECD Economics Department Working Papers|number=638|publisher=OECD Publishing|doi=10.1787/236810400872|doi-access=free}}</ref> Indonesia possesses abundant resources that continue to shape its economy. Its extractive industries produce commodities such as coal, nickel, petroleum, and natural gas,<ref name="OEC">{{cite web|url=https://oec.world/en/profile/country/idn|title=Indonesia|publisher=The Observatory of Economic Complexity|date=2023|access-date=8 May 2025}}</ref> while its agricultural sector is a major global supplier of products including palm oil, coffee, and spices.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.statista.com/topics/7732/agriculture-industry-in-indonesia//|title=Agriculture in Indonesia - statistics & facts|publisher=Statista|last=Rathore|first=M.|date=17 December 2025|access-date=29 December 2025}}</ref> The country also imports refined petroleum products and industrial inputs, and its major trade partners are primarily in Asia, alongside the United States.<ref name="OEC" />

=== Tourism ===
{{Main|Tourism in Indonesia}}
[[File:Borobudur-Nothwest-view.jpg|left|thumb|upright=1.15|[[Borobudur]] in [[Central Java]], the world's largest Buddhist [[pyramid]] temple, is the single most visited tourist attraction in Indonesia.<ref>{{cite book|title=Indonesia|publisher=Lonely Planet Publications Pty Ltd.|date=2003|location=Melbourne|pages=211–215|isbn=978-1-74059-154-6|last=Elliott|first=M.}}</ref>]]

Tourism is a significant source of revenue to the economy, drawing on Indonesia's natural landscapes and cultural heritage. In 2023, it contributed {{currency|14&nbsp;billion|USD|passthrough=yes}} to GDP and drew 11.6 million international visitors.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Dávid|first1=L.D|last2=Rahmat|first2=A.F|last3=Priatmoko|first3=S.|title=Main trends in the tourism industry in Indonesia between 2020–2023|publisher=EnPress Publisher, LLC|journal=Journal of Infrastructure, Policy and Development|date=9 October 2024|volume=8|issue=11|page=8162|doi=10.24294/jipd.v8i11.8162|doi-access=free}}</ref> Australia, Singapore, Malaysia, China, and India are among the top five sources of visitors to Indonesia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bps.go.id/en/statistics-table/2/MTgyMSMy/number-of-foreign-tourist-visits-to-indonesia-by-nationality.html|title=Number of Foreign Tourist Visits to Indonesia by Nationality (Visit), 2024|publisher=Statistics Indonesia|access-date=8 May 2025}}</ref>

The country is renowned for its rich and diverse natural ecosystems, with forests covering 47.7% of its land area.<ref name="forestcov" /> Popular natural destinations include the rainforests of Sumatra and Kalimantan, particularly the Orangutan wildlife reserves.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Russon|first1=A.E.|last2=Adi|first2=S.|chapter=Orangutan tourism and conservation: 35 years' experience|title=Primate Tourism: A Tool for Conservation?|publisher=Cambridge University Press|pages=76–97|date=2014|doi=10.1017/CBO9781139087407.007}}</ref> Indonesia also has one of the world's longest coastlines, stretching {{convert|54716|km|0}}.<ref name="CIA" /> Cultural tourism features prominently, with attractions like the ancient [[Borobudur]] and [[Prambanan]] temples,<ref>{{cite book|editor-last1=King|editor-first1=V.T.|last1=Hitchcock|first1=M.W.|last2=Darma Putra|first2=I.N.|chapter=Prambanan and Borobudur: Managing Tourism and Conservation in Indonesia|title=UNESCO in Southeast Asia: World Heritage Sites in Comparative Perspective|publisher=NUS Press Singapore|pages=258–273|date=2015|isbn=978-87-7694-173-4}}</ref> the [[Toraja]] highlands,<ref>{{cite journal|last=Adams|first=K.M.|title=Ethnic Tourism and the Renegotiation of Tradition in Tana Toraja (Sulawesi, Indonesia)|journal=Journal of Urban Archaeology|publisher=University of Pittsburgh|date=1997|volume=36|number=4|pages=309–320|doi=10.2307/3774040|jstor=3774040|url=https://ecommons.luc.edu/anthropology_facpubs/2}}</ref> and the cultural festivals of [[Bali]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Yanti|first1=N.K.W.|last2=Mahadewi|first2=N.N.T.|last3=Wisudawati|first3=N.N.S.|last4=Shantika|first4=B.|last5=Yusnny|first5=B.D.|title=Bali's cultural festivals: A visitor magnet supporting sustainable tourism|journal=International Journal of Applied Sciences in Tourism and Events|publisher=Unit Publikasi Ilmiah|date=30 June 2025|volume=9|number=1|pages=25–40|doi=10.31940/ijaste.v9i1.25-40}}</ref>

Indonesia is home to [[List of World Heritage Sites in Indonesia|ten official UNESCO World Heritage Sites]], including [[Komodo National Park]] and the [[Yogyakarta|Cosmological Axis of Yogyakarta]].<ref name="UNESCOWHC">{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/id|title=Indonesia - UNESCO World Heritage Convention|publisher=UNESCO|access-date=21 July 2025}}</ref> Additionally, 21 other sites are on the tentative list, such as [[Bunaken National Park]] and the [[Raja Ampat Islands]].<ref name="UNESCOWHC" /> Historical tourism is also a major draw, with attractions like the colonial heritage of the Dutch East Indies in [[Kota Tua Jakarta|Jakarta]] and [[Dutch architecture in Semarang|Semarang]],<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Maulina|first1=A.|display-authors=etal|date=10 June 2024|title=Oud Batavia as a heritage site within Jakarta: Tourist revisit intentions|journal=Tourism|volume=34|number=1|pages=135–145|publisher=University of Łódź|doi=10.18778/0867-5856.34.1.13|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Yuliati|first1=D.|display-authors=etal|date=2 March 2023|title=Preservation of the Old City of Semarang, Central Java, Indonesia, and its development as a cultural tourism asset|journal=Cogent Social Sciences|volume=9|issue=1|article-number=2170740|publisher=Taylor & Francis|doi=10.1080/23311886.2023.2170740|doi-access=free}}</ref> as well as the [[List of palaces in Indonesia|royal palaces]] of [[Pagaruyung Palace|Pagaruyung]] and [[Ubud Palace|Ubud]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Hukmi|first1=F.|display-authors=etal|date=30 May 2020|title=Valuation of Business and Factors Impacting The Demand for Istano Basa Pagaruyung Cultural Tourism|journal=Indonesian Journal of Business and Entrepreneurship|volume=6|number=2|pages=174–183|doi=10.17358/ijbe.6.2.174|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Agung Adnyawati|first=I.A.|date=23 September 2023|title=Bridging Tradition and Tourism in Puri Saren Agung Ubud|journal=Bali Tourism Journal|volume=7|number=3|pages=60–64|doi=10.36675/btj.v7i3|doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== Science and technology ===
{{Main|Science and technology in Indonesia}}
[[File:STS-41-B Palapa B-2 deployment.jpg|thumb|[[Palapa]] satellite launch in 1984|alt=]]
Government spending on research and development in Indonesia has historically been a small proportion of national expenditure,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/GB.XPD.RSDV.GD.ZS?locations=ID|title=Research and development expenditure (% of GDP) - Indonesia|publisher=World Bank|access-date=30 January 2025}}</ref> which has shaped the pace and scale of scientific and technological development.<ref>{{cite report|title=Indonesia: Research & Development Financing - Executive Summary|publisher=The World Bank|date=January 2013}}</ref> Historical innovations include the ''[[pinisi]]'' boats of the [[Bugis]] and [[Makassar people]],<ref>{{cite journal|last=Yunus Ali|first=M.|display-authors=etal|title=The Process of Making a Pinisi Boat in Bantobahari District, Bulukumba Regency, Indonesia|publisher=European Open Science|journal=European Journal of Engineering and Technology Research|date=October 2022|volume=7|issue=5|pages=70–75|doi=10.24018/ejeng.2022.7.5.2837|doi-access=free}}</ref> while the most recent ones include the [[Sosrobahu]] road construction technique that has been used internationally.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://observerid.com/getting-to-know-5-indonesian-inventors/|title=Getting to know 5 Indonesian inventors|publisher=Independent Observer|date=23 October 2022|access-date=11 November 2025|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251111015424/https://observerid.com/getting-to-know-5-indonesian-inventors/|archive-date=11 November 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.smu.edu.sg/sites/news.smu.edu.sg/files/wwwsmu/news_room/smu_in_the_news/2015/july/jul3/Tabla_20150703_1.pdf|title=Backyard innovations|work=Tabla|date=3 July 2015|access-date=25 December 2025|archive-date=25 December 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251225112441/https://news.smu.edu.sg/sites/news.smu.edu.sg/files/wwwsmu/news_room/smu_in_the_news/2015/july/jul3/Tabla_20150703_1.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

Indonesia is one of the few developing countries with an aircraft manufacturing industry.<ref name="Steenhuis">{{cite conference|last1=Steenhuis|first1=H-J.|last2=de Bruijn|first2=E.J.|title=High Technology in Developing Countries: Analysis of Technology Strategy, Technology Transfer, and Success Factors in the Aircraft Industry|book-title=New Directions in Technology Management: Changing Collaboration Between Government, Industry and University|conference=13th International Conference on Management of Technology (IAMOT)|location=Washington, D.C.|date=April 2004|publisher=International Association for the Management of Technology|url=https://research.utwente.nl/en/publications/high-technology-in-developing-countries-analysis-of-technology-st/|access-date=25 December 2025}}</ref> The state-owned [[Indonesian Aerospace]] (''PT. Dirgantara Indonesia'', PTDI) has domestically produced the [[Indonesian Aerospace N219|N219]],<ref>{{cite journal|last=Jeneva|first=N.|title=Strengthening the Potential of the Aviation Industry as a Bilateral Cooperation between Indonesia and Germany|journal=Formosa Journal of Multidisciplinary Research|publisher=Formosa Publisher|date=2024|volume=3|number=12|pages=4507–4516}}</ref> collaborated with Spain's [[CASA (aircraft manufacturer)|CASA]] to develop the [[CASA/IPTN CN-235|CN-235]],<ref name="Steenhuis" /> and supplied components to [[Boeing]] and [[Airbus]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Pandapotan|first1=B.Y.|last2=Arief|first2=D.S.|last3=Fridawaty|first3=S.|last4=Firdaus|first4=M.|title=Production Process of D-Nose Panel Components for A-350 Airplane Wings, PT Dirgantara Indonesia|journal=Journal of Ocean, Mechanical and Aerospace|publisher=ISOMAse|date=30 March 2023|volume=67|number=1|pages=15–22|doi=10.36842/jomase.v67i1.276}}</ref> Beyond aerospace, another state-led industrial capability is evident in rail manufacturing, where the country produces passenger trains and freight wagons through the [[Industri Kereta Api|Indonesian Railway Industry]] (''Industri Kereta Api'', INKA), which exports trains to international markets, including Africa and New Zealand.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Prinanda|first1=D.|last2=Prasodjo|first2=H.|title=Indonesia's Trade Policy Strategy through the Rail Industry for The Train Market in Africa|journal=Periodical Review of Economics and Development Studies|publisher=Media Trend|language=id|date=March 2023|volume=18|issue=1|pages=102–109|doi=10.21107/mediatrend.v18i1.17337}}</ref>

Indonesia is one of the first countries in Asia to build a space program.<ref name="actaastro">{{cite journal|last=Berthet|first=M.|date=October 2025|title=History of the space industry in Asia: A concert in three movements|journal=Acta Astronautica|publisher=International Academy of Astronautics|volume=235|doi=10.1016/j.actaastro.2025.06.019|pages=435–451|doi-access=free|bibcode=2025AcAau.235..435B}}</ref> The [[National Institute of Aeronautics and Space]] (''<span lang="id" dir="ltr">Lembaga Penerbangan dan Antariksa Nasional</span>'', LAPAN), founded in 1963, oversaw Indonesia's space program until [[Research Organization for Aeronautics and Space|2021]]. Indonesia was the first developing country with a satellite system when LAPAN launched ''[[Palapa]]'' in 1976 with U.S. assistance.<ref name="actaastro" /> Since 2003, LAPAN has developed and launched [[Lapan-TUBsat|micro-satellites]] for Earth-observation, remote sensing and maritime monitoring,<ref>{{cite conference|last1=Triharjanto|first1=R.H.|date=March 2012|title=Development of Micro-satellite Technology at the Indonesian National Institute of Aeronautics and Space (LAPAN)|conference=17th CEReS International Symposium Proceedings}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Julzarika|first1=A.|title=Utilization of LAPAN Satellite (TUBSAT, A2, and A3) in supporting Indonesia's potential as maritime center of the world|publisher=IOP Publishing Ltd|journal=IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science|date=2017|volume=54|issue=1|article-number=012097|doi=10.1088/1755-1315/54/1/012097|bibcode=2017E&ES...54a2097J}}</ref> and has conducted [[RX (rocket family)|suborbital rocket tests]],<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Artono|first1=E.|display-authors=etal|title=Power control system for the RX-320 atmospheric payload sounding rocket|publisher=AIP Publishing|journal=AIP Conference Proceedings|series=PROCEEDINGS OF THE 3rd INTERNATIONAL SEMINAR ON METALLURGY AND MATERIALS (ISMM2019): Exploring New Innovation in Metallurgy and Materials|date=21 April 2020|volume=2226|issue=1|page=030008|doi=10.1063/5.0002359|bibcode=2020AIPC.2226c0008A}}</ref> at the [[Stasiun Peluncuran Roket|Pameungpeuk launch site]] in [[Garut Regency]], West Java.

== Infrastructure ==
{{See also|List of main infrastructure projects in Indonesia}}

=== Transport ===
{{Main|Transport in Indonesia}}
[[File:Whoosh High-speed Train G1224, in Bojongkoneng, Ngamprah.jpg|thumb|''Whoosh'' is the first high-speed rail in Southeast Asia and Southern Hemisphere. It is expected to be extended to the country's second largest city, [[Surabaya]].<ref name="railways" />]]

Indonesia's transport system reflects its archipelagic geography and population concentration on Java.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Legge|first1=J.D.|title=Review: Indonesia's Diversity Revisited|journal=Indonesia|date=April 1990|volume=49|issue=49|pages=127–131|doi=10.2307/3351057|jstor=3351057|hdl=1813/53928|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Roads form the backbone of land transport,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bps.go.id/id/statistics-table/2/NTEjMg==/panjang-jalan-menurut-jenis-permukaan.html|title=Length of Road by Surface, 2002–2022 (Km)|publisher=Statistics Indonesia|language=id|date=29 February 2024|access-date=21 January 2025}}</ref> and public bus networks support mobility in most large cities. [[Transjakarta]] operates one of the world's largest bus rapid transit systems,<ref>{{cite report|last1=Kreindler|first1=Gabriel|last2=Gaduh|first2=Arya|last3=Graff|first3=Tilman|last4=Hanna|first4=Rema|last5=Olken|first5=Benjamin|title=Optimal Public Transportation Networks: Evidence from the World's Largest Bus Rapid Transit System in Jakarta|date=2023|doi=10.3386/w31369|ssrn=4483670|pages=7–8}}</ref> while [[Ridesharing company|ride-hailing services]]<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Muchlisin|first1=M.|display-authors=etal|title=Adoption and frequency of motorcycle and car-based ride-hailing use across income groups in Yogyakarta, Indonesia|journal=Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice|date=18 September 2025|volume=201|number=104671|article-number=104671|doi=10.1016/j.tra.2025.104671|doi-access=free|bibcode=2025TRPA..20104671M}}</ref> and informal transport modes supplement conventional systems and are widely used.{{efn|Examples include [[rickshaw]]s such as ''bajaj'' and ''becak'', as well as shared taxis including ''angkot'' and minibuses.}}<ref>{{cite report|title=Sustainability Assessment of Urban Transport System in Greater Jakarta|date=2021|last=Resdiansyah|first=|work=Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific|publisher=United Nations|hdl=20.500.12870/4280}}</ref><ref>{{citation|last1=Kuntadi|first1=C.|last2=Lestari|first2=H.R.|last3=Nurlaela|first3=S.|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/389683055|title=The Public Preferences of Public Transportation in Indonesia|publisher=International CEO Communication, Economics, Organization & Social Sciences Congress|date=December 2022}}</ref> In rural areas, village transport services known as ''angdes (angkutan pedesaan)'' help connect smaller communities to cities.<ref>{{citation|last=Effendi|first=N.|title=Minangkabau Rural Markets: Their System, Roles and Functions in the Market Community of West Sumatra, Indonesia|type=PhD dissertation|institution=University of Bielefeld|location=Bielefeld, Germany|year=1999|quote=Angkutan Pedesaan: rural public transportation. These transport vehicles mostly travel along the roads that connect villages with the city.}}</ref>

Railways operate mainly on Java and Sumatra,<ref>{{cite report|author=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|title=OECD Competition Assessment Reviews: Logistics Sector in Indonesia|year=2021|publisher=OECD Publishing|location=Paris|page=34}}</ref> with more [[Trans-Sulawesi Railway|recent additions in Sulawesi]],<ref>{{cite report|author=Australia–Indonesia Centre|title=Maximising the Effectiveness of the South Sulawesi Rail Line|year=2024|publisher=Australia–Indonesia Centre|location=Melbourne}}</ref> serving freight and passenger transport, including commuter and inter-city rail services like those in [[KRL Commuterline|Greater Jakarta]] and [[KAI Commuter Yogyakarta Line|Yogyakarta]]. [[Rapid transit]] systems were introduced in Jakarta and [[Palembang]] in the late 2010s,<ref name="railways">{{cite journal|last1=Zufarihasan|first1=R.|display-authors=etal|title=Recent developments in high-speed railway in Indonesia: Superstructure construction and track infrastructure|journal=Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives|date=21 March 2025|volume=31|article-number=101385|doi=10.1016/j.trip.2025.101385|bibcode=2025TrRIP..3101385Z}}</ref> and in 2023, Indonesia opened its first [[High-speed rail in Indonesia|high-speed rail line]] (''Whoosh'') that links Jakarta and [[Bandung]], which is a product of collaboration with China.<ref name="railways" />

Air and sea transport also play significant roles. [[Soekarno–Hatta International Airport]], Indonesia's largest, [[List of busiest airports by passenger traffic|served 54&nbsp;million passengers in 2024]], followed by [[Ngurah Rai International Airport|Ngurah Rai]] and [[Juanda International Airport]]s.<ref name="HVS">{{cite report|last1=Chee|first1=H.Y.|last2=Xin|first2=C.K.|last3=Ko|first3=I.|title=In Focus: Indonesia|publisher=HVS|date=31 July 2025|language=English|type=Industry research report}}</ref> Flag carrier [[Garuda Indonesia]] is one of the world's leading airlines and is a member of the airline alliance [[SkyTeam]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Garuda Indonesia Becomes 20th Member of SkyTeam Alliance|url=http://www.skyteam.com/en/About-us/Press/News/2014/Garuda-Indonesia-Becomes-20th-Member-of-SkyTeam-Alliance/|date=5 March 2014|publisher=SkyTeam|access-date=6 March 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140305104028/https://www.skyteam.com/en/About-us/Press/News/2014/Garuda-Indonesia-Becomes-20th-Member-of-SkyTeam-Alliance/|archive-date=5 March 2014}}</ref> The [[Port of Tanjung Priok]], the country's largest and one of the busiest in the region,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Santoso|first1=M. Iman|last2=Suroso|first2=Djoko Santoso Abi|last3=Fitriyanto|first3=Muhammad S.|last4=Suroso|first4=Muhammad S. P. A.|last5=Krumme|first5=Klaus|last6=Melkonyan-Gottschalk|first6=Ani|last7=Noche|first7=Bernd|title=Environmental Governance in Indonesia|chapter=Conceptual Design of Sustainable Governance by VIDEL (Virtual Dashboard of Environmentally Logistics-Port-City): A Case Study of Jakarta and Tanjung-Priok Port|series=Environment & Policy|date=2023|volume=61|pages=487–506|doi=10.1007/978-3-031-15904-6_25|isbn=978-3-031-15903-9}}</ref> handles over 50% of Indonesia's trans-shipment cargo traffic.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Suprata|first1=F|last2=Natalia|first2=C|last3=Sugioko|first3=A|title=Analysing the cause of idle time in loading and unloading operation at Indonesian international port container terminal: Port of Tanjung Priok case study|journal=IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering|date=April 2020|volume=847|issue=1|article-number=012090|doi=10.1088/1757-899X/847/1/012090|bibcode=2020MS&E..847a2090S|doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== Energy ===
{{Main|Energy in Indonesia}}
[[File:PLTB-Sidrap.jpg|thumb|Sidrap wind farm, Indonesia's first wind power plant,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Maulidia|first1=M.|display-authors=etal|title=Sidrap: A Study of the Factors That Led to the Development of Indonesia's First Large-Scale Wind Farm|journal=Case Studies in the Environment|date=31 December 2019|volume=3|issue=1|pages=1–12|doi=10.1525/cse.2018.001453|bibcode=2019CSEnv...3.1453M}}</ref> in [[Sidrap Regency]], [[South Sulawesi]]]]
Indonesia is a [[Energy in Indonesia|major energy producer and consumer]] due to its large population, industrial base and resource endowment.{{efn|In 2023, Indonesia produced {{convert|19.2|e15Btu|TWh|lk=on|order=flip|abbr=off}} and consumed {{convert|10.5|e15Btu|TWh|order=flip|abbr=off}} worth of energy.<ref name="EIA">{{cite web|url=https://www.eia.gov/international/overview/country/IDN|title=Overview: Indonesia|publisher=U.S. Energy Information Administration|date=25 August 2025|access-date=24 December 2025}}</ref>}} Total [[Electricity generation|installed power generation]] capacity in 2023 stands at 70.8 gigawatts (GW),<ref name="EIA" /> with coal forming the largest source of power.<ref>{{cite report|url=https://www.pwc.com/id/en/pwc-publications/industries-publications/energy--utilities---mining-publications/power-guide-2023.htm|year=2023|title=Power in Indonesia: Investment and Taxation Guide 2023|publisher=PwC|edition=7}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fazeli|first1=R.|display-authors=etal|date=November 2025|title=Southeast Asia faces high stranded asset risk from coal power investments|journal=Energy Strategy Reviews|volume=62|number=101971|article-number=101971|doi=10.1016/j.esr.2025.101971|bibcode=2025EneSR..6201971F}}</ref> Other significant sources include natural gas, oil and renewables such as geothermal, hydropower and solar.<ref name="energyADB" /> The state-owned [[Perusahaan Listrik Negara|State Electricity Company]] (''<span lang="id" dir="ltr">Perusahaan Listrik Negara</span>'', PLN) holds a monopoly on power generation, transmission and distribution across the country.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Apriliyanti|first1=I.D.|last2=Nugraha|first2=D.B.|last3=Kristiansen|first3=S.|last4=Overland|first4=I.|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|date=December 2024|title=To reform or not reform? Competing energy transition perspectives on Indonesia's monopoly electricity supplier Perusahaan Listrik Negara (PLN)|volume=118|article-number=103797|doi=10.1016/j.erss.2024.103797|doi-access=free|bibcode=2024ERSS..11803797A}}</ref>

Indonesia's energy mix remains dependent on non-renewable sources, particularly coal and followed by natural gas and oil.<ref name="NZE" /> Renewables, including geothermal, hydropower and solar account for a limited but gradually increasing share.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.iea.org/countries/indonesia/energy-mix|title=Indonesia - Energy Supply|publisher=International Energy Agency|date=2023|access-date=24 January 2025}}</ref> The potential for renewable energy is substantial, particularly geothermal, where the country ranks as one of the world's largest producers.<ref name="energyADB">{{cite report|title=Summary of Indonesia's Energy Sector Assessment|url=https://www.adb.org/publications/summary-indonesias-energy-sector-assessment|date=December 2015|work=ADB Papers on Indonesia|publisher=Asian Development Bank}}</ref> The country is an important exporter of energy commodities, including coal and liquefied natural gas,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ambya|first1=A.|last2=Hamzah|first2=L.M.|title=Indonesian Coal Exports: Dynamic Panel Analysis Approach|journal=International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy|publisher=Econ Journals|date=15 December 2021|volume=12|issue=1|pages=390–395|doi=10.32479/ijeep.11978|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="OEC" /><ref>{{cite report|last1=Choi|first1=J.|last2=Herberg|first2=M.E.|last3=Palti-Guzman|first3=L.|last4=Smith|first4=R.|last5=Tsafos|first5=N.|title=Revolutionizing LNG and Natural Gas in the Indo-Pacific|work=NBR Special Report|publisher=The National Burreau of Asian Research|date=October 2019|number=81|pages=26–29}}</ref> while also importing refined petroleum products.<ref name="EIA" />

The government has outlined plans to diversify energy sources and increase the share of renewables as part of longer-term efforts to reduce emissions.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://jakartaglobe.id/business/indonesia-to-add-71-gw-of-renewable-energy-as-part-of-longterm-power-plan|title=Indonesia to Add 71 GW of Renewable Energy as Part of Long-Term Power Plan|work=Jakarta Globe|publisher=The Jakarta Globe|date=24 December 2024|access-date=25 January 2025|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250206170100/https://jakartaglobe.id/business/indonesia-to-add-71-gw-of-renewable-energy-as-part-of-longterm-power-plan|archive-date=6 February 2025}}</ref><ref name="NZE">{{cite journal|last1=Siregar|first1=Yudha Irmansyah|title=Pathways towards net-zero emissions in Indonesia's energy sector|journal=Energy|date=November 2024|volume=308|article-number=133014|doi=10.1016/j.energy.2024.133014|doi-access=free|bibcode=2024Ene...30833014S}}</ref> However, the country has insufficient infrastructure for renewable energy, struggles to provide electricity to remote areas,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Wirawan|first1=Hanni|last2=Gultom|first2=Yohanna M.L.|title=The effects of renewable energy-based village grid electrification on poverty reduction in remote areas: The case of Indonesia|journal=Energy for Sustainable Development|date=June 2021|volume=62|pages=186–194|doi=10.1016/j.esd.2021.04.006|bibcode=2021ESusD..62..186W}}</ref> and continues to rely heavily on coal.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gielen|first1=D.|last2=Saygin|first2=D.|last3=Rigter|first3=J.|date=March 2017|title=Renewable Energy Prospects: Indonesia, a REmap analysis|publisher=International Renewable Energy Agency|isbn=978-92-95111-18-9|url=https://www.irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2017/Mar/IRENA_REmap_Indonesia_report_2017.pdf|pages=2, 14, 19, 24}}</ref>

== Demographics ==
{{Main|Demographics of Indonesia|Indonesians}}
{{See also|List of Indonesian cities by population|List of metropolitan areas in Indonesia}}
[[File:Population density of Indonesia by district (kecamatan) (2022) (alternate colour scheme).svg|thumb|left|upright=1.5|A map of districts (''kecamatan'') coloured by population density as measured by person per square kilometres]]

Indonesia has a large and regionally diverse population shaped by its geography, history, and patterns of migration. With a population of 270.2&nbsp;million according to the [[2020 Indonesian census|2020 census]],<ref name="2020census" /> Indonesia ranks as the world's [[List of countries and dependencies by population|fourth most populous country]] behind India, China and the United States. Java, the world's most populated island, is home to 56% of the population.<ref name="2020census">{{cite web|url=https://www.bps.go.id/website/materi_ind/materiBrsInd-20210121151046.pdf|page=9|publisher=Statistics Indonesia|title=Hasil Sensus Penduduk 2020|language=id|date=21 January 2021|access-date=21 January 2021|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122154418/https://www.bps.go.id/website/materi_ind/materiBrsInd-20210121151046.pdf|archive-date=22 January 2021}}</ref> The overall population density stands at {{convert|141|/km2|/mi2|disp=preunit|people&nbsp;|people|}},<ref name="2020census" /> but Java's density is significantly higher, reaching {{convert|1,171|/km2|/mi2|disp=preunit|people&nbsp;|people|}}.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Mardiansjah|first=F.H.|display-authors=etal|title=Analyzing Urban Population Growth in the Towns of Non-urban Regions in Java, Indonesia, Using Spatial Analysis|publisher=IOP Publishing Ltd|journal=IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science|year=2023|volume=1264|issue=1|article-number=012012|doi=10.1088/1755-1315/1264/1/012012|doi-access=free|bibcode=2023E&ES.1264a2012M}}</ref> Indonesia's first post-colonial census in 1961 recorded a population of 97 million,<ref>{{cite journal|last=Nitisastro|first=W.|title=Population Trends in Indonesia|publisher=Cornell University Press|journal=The Journal of Asian Studies|year=1970|page=187|doi=10.1017/S0021911800147916}}</ref> and projections estimate it will grow to 335 million by 2050.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Puspamurti|first1=N.M.G.|last2=Oktavianti|first2=I.A.|last3=Nilakusmawati|first3=D.P.E.|title=Population Projection Based on the Cohort-Component Method: A Comparative Study of Global and Indonesian Approaches|journal=International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Growth Evaluation|volume=6|issue=4|pages=551–559|publisher=Anfo Publication House|date=2025|doi=10.54660/.IJMRGE.2025.6.4.551-559}}</ref> The country maintains a relatively young demographic, with a median age of 31.5 years as of 2024.<ref name="CIA" />

Population distribution is highly uneven, shaped by the country's diverse geography and [[List of Indonesian provinces by Human Development Index|varying levels of development]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ahmad|first1=W.I.W.|display-authors=etal|title=The Dynamics of Population Growth and Demographic Issues in Indonesia|journal=International Journal of Scientific Research in Multidisciplinary Studies|publisher=International Scientific Research Organization for Science, Engineering and Technology|date=28 February 2025|volume=11|issue=2|pages=10–15|issn=2454-9312}}{{predatory}}</ref> It ranges from the bustling [[megacity]] of Jakarta to remote and [[Uncontacted peoples|uncontacted tribes]] in Papua.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.survivalinternational.org/news/2191|title=BBC: First contact with isolated tribes?|publisher=Survival International|date=25 January 2007|access-date=30 July 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121019183320/http://www.survivalinternational.org/news/2191|archive-date=19 October 2012}}</ref> As of 2024, approximately 59% of Indonesians live in urban areas,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/share-of-population-urban|title=Share of people living in urban areas, 2024|publisher=Our World in Data|access-date=21 January 2025}}</ref> with Jakarta as the country's [[primate city]] and the world's [[List of largest cities|most populous urban area]], housing nearly 42 million people according to the United Nations.<ref>{{cite report|title=World Urbanization Prospects 2025|url=https://www.un.org/development/desa/pd/world-urbanization-prospects-2025|work=Department of Economic and Social Affairs - Population Division|publisher=United Nations|location=New York}}</ref> In addition, about 8 million [[Indonesian diaspora|Indonesians reside overseas]], with large communities in Malaysia, the Netherlands, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, and Taiwan.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Setijadi|first1=Charlotte|title=Harnessing the Potential of the Indonesian Diaspora|date=2017|doi=10.1355/9789814786928|isbn=978-981-4786-92-8|page=7}}</ref>

{{Largest cities of Indonesia|class=info}}

=== Ethnic groups and languages ===
{{Main|Ethnic groups in Indonesia|Native Indonesians|Languages of Indonesia}}
[[File:Indonesia Ethnic Groups Map - EN.svg|upright=1.5|thumb|A map of ethnic groups in Indonesia]]

Indonesia is home to around 600 distinct native ethnic groups,<ref name="BPS">{{cite web|url=http://www.bps.go.id/website/pdf_publikasi/watermark%20_Kewarganegaraan%2C%20Suku%20Bangsa%2C%20Agama%20dan%20Bahasa_281211.pdf|title=Nationality, Ethnicity, Religion, and Languages of Indonesians|language=id|last1=Na'im|first1=A.|last2=Syaputra|first2=H.|publisher=[[Statistics Indonesia]]|date=2010|access-date=23 September 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923194534/http://www.bps.go.id/website/pdf_publikasi/watermark%20_Kewarganegaraan%2C%20Suku%20Bangsa%2C%20Agama%20dan%20Bahasa_281211.pdf|archive-date=23 September 2015}}</ref> predominantly descended from [[Austronesian peoples]] speaking [[Proto-Austronesian language]]s, likely from modern-day Taiwan.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Mona|first1=S.|display-authors=etal|date=4 May 2009|title=Genetic Admixture History of Eastern Indonesia as Revealed by Y-Chromosome and Mitochondrial DNA Analysis|journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution|publisher=Oxford University Press|volume=26|issue=8|pages=1865–1877|doi=10.1093/molbev/msp097|doi-access=free|pmid=19414523}}</ref> The [[Melanesians]], who inhabit eastern Indonesia, represent another significant ethnic grouping.{{sfn|Taylor|2003|pp=5–7}}{{sfn|Witton|2003|pp=139, 181, 251, 435}}{{sfn|Forshee|2006|pp=6}} The Javanese, making up 40% of the population,<ref name="ISEASdemo">{{cite book|last1=Ananta|first1=A.|last2=Arifin|first2=E.N.|last3=Hasbullah|first3=M.S.|last4=Handayani|first4=N.B.|last5=Pramono|first5=A.|year=2015|title=Demography of Indonesia's Ethnicity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=crKfCgAAQBAJ|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies|isbn=978-981-4519-87-8}}</ref> are the largest ethnic group and the politically dominant one,<ref>{{cite book|last=Kingsbury|first=D.|title=Autonomy and Disintegration in Indonesia|publisher=Routledge|page=131|isbn=0-415-29737-0|year=2003}}</ref> primarily residing in central and eastern Java, with sizeable numbers in other provinces. Other major groups include the [[Sundanese people|Sundanese]], [[Malay Indonesians|Malay]], [[Batak]], [[Madurese people|Madurese]], [[Betawi people|Betawi]], [[Minangkabau people|Minangkabau]], and [[Bugis people|Bugis]].<ref name="ISEASdemo" />{{efn|Smaller but significant populations of ethnic [[Chinese Indonesians|Chinese]], [[Indian Indonesians|Indians]], [[Arab Indonesians|Arabs]], and Europeans are concentrated mostly in urban and coastal areas.}} A sense of Indonesian nationhood exists alongside strong regional identities.{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|p=256}}

The official language, [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]], is a standardized variety of [[Malay language|Malay]] based on its [[Prestige (sociolinguistics)|prestige dialect]] originating around the Riau-Johor region, which became the archipelago's ''[[lingua franca]]'' over the course of centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Sneddon|first1=J.N.|title=The Indonesian language: its history and role in modern society|publisher=University of New South Wales Press Ltd|date=2003|isbn=0-86840-598-1}}</ref>{{efn|Due to significant contact with other languages, it is rich in local and foreign influences, which include Javanese, Sundanese, Minangkabau, Makassarese, Sanskrit, Chinese, Arabic, Dutch, Portuguese, and English.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Anwar|first=K.|title=Minangkabau, Background of the main pioneers of modern standard Malay in Indonesia|journal=Archipel|year=1976|volume=12|pages=77–93|doi=10.3406/arch.1976.1296}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.macmillandictionaries.com/MED-Magazine/May2006/38-Indonesian-English-false-friends.htm|title=Language interference: Indonesian and English|last=Amerl|first=I.|publisher=MED Magazine|date=May 2006|access-date=20 January 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170729050607/http://www.macmillandictionaries.com/MED-Magazine/May2006/38-Indonesian-English-false-friends.htm|archive-date=29 July 2017}}</ref>}} It was first [[Youth Pledge|promoted by nationalists in the 1920s]] and gained official status in 1945 under the name ''Bahasa Indonesia''; it is written in the Latin script and has since been widely adopted through its use in education, media, business, and governance.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Ridwan|first=M.|title=National and Official Language: The Long Journey of Indonesian Language|journal=Budapest International Research and Critics Institute (BIRCI-Journal): Humanities and Social Sciences|date=June 2018|volume=1|number=2|pages=72–78|doi=10.33258/birci.v1i2.14}}</ref> While nearly all Indonesians speak ''Bahasa'', most also speak one of over 700 local languages,<ref name="sevenhund">{{cite conference|last1=Aji|first1=A.F.|display-authors=etal|date=2022|title=One Country, 700+ Languages: NLP Challenges for Underrepresented Languages and Dialects in Indonesia|conference=Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL)|page=|publisher=Association for Computational Linguistics|location=Dublin|pages=7226–7249|doi=10.18653/v1/2022.acl-long.500|doi-access=free}}</ref> some of which retain distinct writing traditions.<ref>{{cite conference|last1=Farid Adilazuarda|first1=M.|display-authors=etal|title=NusaAksara: A Multimodal and Multilingual Benchmark for Preserving Indonesian Indigenous Scripts|book-title=Proceedings of the 63rd Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers)|year=2025|doi=10.48550/arXiv.2502.18148|doi-access=free}}</ref> These are predominantly from the [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian family]], with more than 150 [[Papuan languages]] in eastern Indonesia.{{sfn|Forshee|2006|pp=7}} [[Javanese language|Javanese]] is the most widely spoken local language<ref name="sevenhund" /> and holds co-official status in [[Special Region of Yogyakarta|Yogyakarta]].<ref>{{cite act|type=Regional Regulation|index=2|date=2021|legislature=[[List of governors of Yogyakarta|Governor of Special Region of Yogyakarta]]|title=Regional Regulation (Perda) of the Special Region of Yogyakarta Province No. 2/2021 on the Preservation and Development of the Javanese Language, Literature, and Script|url=https://peraturan.bpk.go.id/Home/Details/162614/perda-no-2-tahun-2021|language=id}}</ref>

The [[Dutch people|Dutch]] and other European-descended populations like the [[Indo people|Indos]], though significant during colonial times, always represented a small fraction of the population, numbering only around 200,000 in 1930.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=van Imhoff|first1=E.|last2=Beets|first2=G.|title=A demographic history of the Indo-Dutch population, 1930–2001|publisher=Springer|journal=Journal of Population Research|date=March 2004|volume=21|issue=2|pages=47–72|doi=10.1007/BF03032210}}</ref> The Dutch language never gained substantial traction due to the Dutch colonial focus on commerce rather than cultural integration.{{sfn|Baker|Prys Jones|1998|p=202}}<ref>{{cite book|last=Ward|first=K.|title=Networks of Empire: Forced Migration in the Dutch East India Company|date=2009|pages=322–342|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-521-88586-7}}</ref> Dutch fluency exists today in small numbers among some older generations and legal professionals,{{sfn|Ammon|Dittmar|Mattheier|Trudgill|2006|p=2017}} as specific legal codes remain available only in that language.{{sfn|Booij|1999|p=2}}

=== Religion ===
{{Main|Religion in Indonesia}}
[[File:Religious affiliation by district (kecamatan) in Indonesia (2022).svg|thumb|right|upright=1.5|A map of districts (''kecamatan'') coloured by plurality/majority religious affiliation and what percentage of citizens it represents]]

Indonesia officially recognises [[Religion in Indonesia|six religions]]: [[Islam in Indonesia|Islam]], [[Protestantism in Indonesia|Protestantism]], [[Roman Catholicism in Indonesia|Roman Catholicism]], [[Hinduism in Indonesia|Hinduism]], [[Buddhism in Indonesia|Buddhism]], and [[Supreme Council for the Confucian Religion in Indonesia|Confucianism]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Shah|first=D.A.H.|date=25 October 2017|title=Constitutions, Religion and Politics in Asia: Indonesia, Malaysia and Sri Lanka|place=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-18334-6|doi=10.1017/9781316869635}}</ref><ref name="Marshall">{{cite journal|last=Marshall|first=P.|date=2018|title=The Ambiguities of Religious Freedom in Indonesia|journal=The Review of Faith & International Affairs|volume=16|issue=1|pages=85–96|doi=10.1080/15570274.2018.1433588|doi-access=free}}</ref> while acknowledging religious freedom in the constitution.<ref>Chapter XA, Article 28E, 1st Clause of the 1945 Constitution.</ref><ref name="UUD45" /> As of 2024, 87.1% of the population (244 million Indonesians) are Muslims,<ref name="auto" /> making Indonesia the world's most populous Muslim-majority country,{{sfn|Ricklefs|2001|p=379}} with [[Sunni Islam|Sunnis]] constituting 99% of the Muslim population.<ref>{{cite report|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2011/01/27/the-future-of-the-global-muslim-population/|title=The Future of the Global Muslim Population|publisher=Pew Research Center|date=27 January 2011|access-date=3 December 2025|page=154}}</ref>{{efn|The rest consists of the [[Shia Islam in Indonesia|Shias]] and [[Ahmadiyya in Indonesia|Ahmadis]], who form 1% (1–3 million) and 0.2% (200,000–400,000) of the Muslim population.<ref name="Marshall" /><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/documents/organization/268976.pdf|title=2016 Indonesia International Religious Freedom Report|author=((Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor))|publisher=U.S. Department of State|date=2017|access-date=19 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171219044652/https://www.state.gov/documents/organization/268976.pdf|archive-date=19 December 2017}}</ref>}} Christians, comprising 10% of the population,<ref name="auto" /> form majorities in several eastern provinces,<ref name="HCI">{{cite book|editor-last1=Aritonang|editor-first1=J.S.|editor-last2=Steenbrink|editor-first2=K.|title=A History of Christianity in Indonesia|series=Studies in Christian Mission|publisher=Brill|date=2008|volume=35|isbn=978-90-474-4183-0}}</ref> while Hindus and Buddhists are primarily Balinese and Chinese Indonesians, respectively.<ref name="McDaniel" /><ref>{{cite book|title=Ethnic Chinese in Contemporary Indonesia|editor-last=Suryadinata|editor-first=L.|year=2008|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies|isbn=978-981-230-835-1}}</ref>

Before the arrival of major world religions, Indonesia's native peoples practised [[animism]] and [[Dynamism (metaphysics)|dynamism]], worshipping ancestral spirits and believing in the supernatural (''[[hyang]]'') inhabiting natural elements, such as large trees, mountains and forests.<ref name="Ooi">{{cite book|title=Southeast Asia: A historical encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor (3 volume set)|editor-last=Ooi|editor-first=K.G.|publisher=ABC-CLIO|date=2004|page=177|isbn=978-1-57607-770-2}}</ref> Such beliefs are common to the [[Austronesian peoples]].<ref name="Ooi" /> These indigenous traditions, such as Sundanese [[Sunda Wiwitan]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sodikin|date=9 December 2022|title=Understanding the Concept of Sunda Wiwitan Religion in the Baduy Community in Indonesia Related to Environmental Management|journal=International Journal of Social Science and Education Research Studies|volume=2|number=12|pages=742–749|doi=10.55677/ijssers/V02I12Y2022-06}}</ref> Javanese [[Kejawèn]],<ref>{{cite book|title=The Religion of Java|last1=Geertz|first1=C.|publisher=Glencoe, IL: Free Press|date=1960}}</ref> and Dayak's [[Kaharingan]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Baier|first=M.|date=2007|title=The Development of the Hindu Kaharingan Religion: A New Dayak Religion in Central Kalimantan|journal=Anthropos|volume=102|issue=2|pages=566–570|jstor=40389742|doi=10.5771/0257-9774-2007-2-566}}</ref> have profoundly influenced modern religious practices, resulting in a less orthodox and syncretic form of faith like Javanese [[abangan]], [[Balinese Hinduism]] and Dayak Christianity.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Politics of Religion in Indonesia: Syncretism, Orthodoxy, and Religious Contention in Java and Bali|editor-last1=Picard|editor-first1=M.|editor-last2=Madinier|editor-first2=R.|publisher=Routledge|date=2011|edition=1|isbn=978-0-415-61311-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite thesis|title=The Effect of the Dayak Worldview, Customs, Traditions, and Customary Law (adat-istiadat) on the Interpretation of the Gospel in West Kalimantan, Indonesian Borneo|last=Thomson|first=L.K.|date=2000|url=https://www.nlc-bnc.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk2/ftp02/NQ54506.pdf|page=1–5, 11}}</ref>

[[File:Banda Aceh's Grand Mosque, Indonesia.jpg|thumb|left|[[Baiturrahman Grand Mosque]] in [[Banda Aceh]], [[Aceh]]. The [[spread of Islam in Indonesia]] began in the region.]]
Hinduism reached the archipelago in the 1st century CE,<ref name="McDaniel">{{cite journal|last=McDaniel|first=J.|title=Religious change and experimentation in Indonesian Hinduism|journal=International Journal of Dharma Studies|volume=5|number=20|date=16 July 2017|page=2|article-number=20|doi=10.1186/s40613-017-0056-x|doi-access=free}}</ref> followed by Buddhism in the 5th century.<ref>{{cite book|editor-last1=Lammerts|editor-first1=D. C.|title=Buddhist Dynamics in Premodern and Early Modern Southeast Asia|date=19 May 2017|publisher=ISEAS–Yusof Ishak Institute|last=Acri|first=A.|chapter=Revisiting the Cult of "Śiva-buddha" in Java and Bali|isbn=978-9-814-51907-6|page=261}}</ref> Through empires such as Majapahit, Srivijaya, and Sailendra, both religions helped shape Indonesia’s religious history and left lasting cultural influences that endure today, even though neither is a majority faith.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Rahman|first1=Taufiq|title='Indianization' of Indonesia in an Historical Sketch|journal=International Journal of Nusantara Islam|date=6 June 2014|volume=1|issue=2|pages=56–64|doi=10.15575/ijni.v1i2.26}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Tandon|first1=Pradeep|title=Indianised Indonesia: A Cultural Understanding|journal=The Indian Journal of Political Science|date=2017|volume=78|issue=1|pages=151–158|jstor=26534999}}</ref> Islam arrived as early as the 8th century<ref>{{cite book|last1=Feener|first1=R. Michael|title=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Asian History|chapter=Islam in Southeast Asia to c. 1800|date=2019|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277727.013.40|isbn=978-0-19-027772-7}}</ref> through Sunni and Sufi traders from the [[Indian subcontinent]] and [[South Arabia|southern Arabian peninsula]], mixing with local cultural and religious traditions to form a distinct Islamic culture (''[[Pesantren|santri]]'').{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|pp=12–14}}<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Rahayu|first1=P.|last2=Ghrafiza|first2=A.B.|title=Pesantren Culture in Building Generations and Nations|journal=Journal of Pesantren and Fiqh Sosial|publisher=Institute of Research and Community Service|date=June 2024|volume=5|number=1|pages=73–84|doi=10.35878/santri.v5i1.988}}</ref> By the 16th century, Islam had become the dominant religion in Java and Sumatra, resulting from the blend of trade, [[Islamic missionary activity|''dawah'']], such as by the [[Wali Sanga]] and Chinese explorer [[Zheng He]],<ref>{{cite book|title=Admiral Zheng He and Southeast Asia|editor-last=Suryadinata|editor-first=L.|chapter=Zheng He, Semarang and the Islamization of Java: Between History and Legend|last1=Suryadinata|first1=L.|publisher=ISEAS–Yusof Ishak Institute|series=Books and Monographs|date=21 October 2015|isbn=978-9-814-31180-9}}</ref> and military campaigns by several sultanates.{{sfn|Ricklefs|2001|pp=17, 36–57}}{{sfn|Ricklefs|2008}}

[[File:Salah Satu Upacara Besar Di Pura Agung Besakih.jpg|thumb|A Hindu prayer ceremony at [[Besakih Temple]] in [[Bali]], the only province where [[Balinese Hinduism|Hinduism]] is the predominant religion]]
Catholicism and Protestantism were later introduced through missionary efforts during European colonisation, such as by [[Francis Xavier]],{{sfn|Ricklefs|2001|pp=28–29}}<ref>{{cite journal|title=Francis Xavier. His Life, His Times|journal=Missiology: An International Review|publisher=Sage Journals|last=Schurhammer|first=G.|volume=8|issue=3|date=1 July 1980|pages=353–357|doi=10.1177/009182968000800307}}</ref> though the spread of the former encountered difficulties under the VOC and Dutch colonial eras.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Andaya|first=B.W.|title=Islam and Christianity in Southeast Asia, 1600–1700|journal=ISEAS Working Paper|publisher=ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute|issue=3|year=2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite thesis|last=Kruithof|first=M.|title='Shouting in a Desert': Dutch missionary encounters with Javanese Islam, 1850-1910|type=PhD dissertation|publisher=Erasmus University Rotterdam|year=2014}}</ref> The latter's primary branches include the [[Dutch Reformed Church]] and [[Lutheranism]],<ref name="HCI" /> though a multitude of other denominations exist in the country.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Hoon|first1=C.Y.|title=Between Evangelism and Multiculturalism: The Dynamics of Christianity in Indonesia|publisher=SAGE|journal=Social Compass|date=December 2013|volume=60|issue=4|pages=457–470|doi=10.1177/0037768613502758}}</ref> A small Jewish presence has existed in the archipelago, primarily descendants of Dutch and Iraqi Jews,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kowner|first=R.|date=9 October 2010|title=The Japanese Internment of Jews in Wartime Indonesia and Its Causes|journal=Indonesia and the Malay World|volume=38|issue=112|pages=349–371|doi=10.1080/13639811.2010.513846}}</ref> though their numbers have dwindled since independence in 1945.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Jahrbuch für Antisemitismusforschung|editor-last1=Schüler-Springorum|editor-first1=S.|chapter=Antisemitism and Anti-Zionism in Indonesia|last=van Bruinessen|first=M.|year=2023|publisher=Metropol|doi=10.14279/depositonce-21988|isbn=978-3-86331-731-7}}</ref> Only a few Jews remain today, mostly in major cities like Jakarta, [[Manado]] and Surabaya.<ref name="Jews">{{cite journal|last1=Lubis|first1=M.|last2=Irwansyah|title=Between Assimilation and Identity: The Dynamics of the Jewish Community in Indonesia|journal=Asian Journal of Social and Humanities|date=26 April 2024|volume=2|number=7|pages=1496–1507|doi=10.59888/ajosh.v2i7.289}}</ref> One of the remaining synagogues, [[Sha'ar Hashamayim Synagogue (Tondano)|Sha'ar Hashamayim]], is located in [[Tondano]], around 31&nbsp;km from Manado.<ref name="Jews" /><ref>{{cite journal|last=Aryani|first=S.A.|title=Dialectic of Religion and National Identity in North Sulawesi Jewish Communities in The Perspective of Cross-Cultural and Religious Psychology|journal=Al-Jami'ah: Journal of Islamic Studies|publisher=Al-Jamiah Research Centre|volume=60|issue=1|date=25 June 2022|doi=10.14421/ajis.2022.601.199-226|pages=199–226|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Religion is central to the lives of the overwhelming majority of Indonesians, underscoring its integral role in the country's society, culture, and identity.<ref>{{cite report|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2012/08/09/the-worlds-muslims-unity-and-diversity-executive-summary/|title=The World's Muslims: Unity and Diversity|publisher=Pew Research Center|date=9 August 2012|access-date=3 December 2025|page=40}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.patheos.com/blogs/tippling/2018/10/28/religion-in-indonesia-an-insight/|title=Religion in Indonesia: An Insight|last=Pearce|first=J.M.S.|publisher=Patheos|date=28 October 2018|access-date=23 November 2018|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181028170242/https://www.patheos.com/blogs/tippling/2018/10/28/religion-in-indonesia-an-insight/|archive-date=28 October 2018}}</ref> Interfaith relations are significantly shaped by political leadership and civil society, guided by the first principle of Pancasila, which emphasises belief in a supreme deity and religious tolerance.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Culture of Pancasila: An Indonesian concept that fuses the impossible|journal=Acta Asiatica Varsoviensia|publisher=Polish Academy of Sciences|last=Głąb|first=K.M.|pages=5–22|number=33|date=2020|url=https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/52155168}}</ref> While it promotes harmony,<ref>{{cite book|last=Madjid|first=N.|title=Islamic Roots of Modern Pluralism: Indonesian Experience|publisher=Studia Islamika: Indonesian Journal for Islamic Studies|year=1994}}</ref> religious intolerance continues to be a recurring issue.<ref name="RIP" /><ref name="mino">{{cite journal|last=Sumaktoyo|first=N.G.|title=A Price for Democracy? Religious Legislation and Religious Discrimination in Post-Soeharto Indonesia|journal=Bulletin of Indonesian Economic Studies|date=26 March 2020|volume=56|issue=1|pages=23–42|doi=10.1080/00074918.2019.1661354}}</ref> Followers of [[indigenous religion]]s, officially called ''aliran kepercayaan'' or cultural belief systems, have been subject to a lack of legal and governmental recognition that leads to discrimination as well as uncertainty regarding their exact numbers.<ref name="Marshall" />

=== Education ===
{{Main|Education in Indonesia}}
[[File:No 18 Rektorat Universitas Indonesia.jpg|thumb|[[University of Indonesia]] is one of Indonesia's top universities.|alt=]]
Indonesia has [[Education in Indonesia|one of the largest education systems]] in the world, with over 50 million students, 4 million teachers, and more than 250,000 schools.<ref name="worldBankEdu">{{cite web|url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/indonesia/brief/world-bank-and-education-in-indonesia|title=World Bank and Education in Indonesia|publisher=World Bank|date=1 September 2024|access-date=24 January 2025|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250304225325/https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/indonesia/brief/world-bank-and-education-in-indonesia|archive-date=4 March 2025}}</ref> Overseen by several government ministries,{{efn|The [[Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education]], the [[Ministry of Higher Education, Science, and Technology (Indonesia)|Ministry of Higher Education, Science, and Technology]] and the [[Ministry of Religious Affairs (Indonesia)|Ministry of Religious Affairs]] for Islamic schools.<ref name="worldBankEdu" />}} the system follows a 6-3-3-4 structure: six years of elementary school, three years each of junior and senior secondary school, and four years of tertiary education.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mukminin|first1=A.|last2=Habibi|first2=A.|last3=Diat Prajoso|first3=L.|last4=Idi|first4=A.|last5=Hamidah|first5=A.|date=21 June 2019|title=Curriculum Reform in Indonesia: Moving from an Exclusive to Inclusive Curriculum|journal=Center for Educational Policy Studies Journal|volume=9|issue=2|pages=53–72|doi=10.26529/cepsj.543}}</ref> While the literacy rate is high (96%),<ref name="CIA" /> it is lower in rural areas.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Syamsuria|first1=A.S.|last2=Bancong|first2=H.|title=Do Gender and Regional Differences Affect Students' Reading Literacy? A Case Study in Indonesia|journal=Eurasian Journal of Applied Linguistics|date=2022|volume=8|number=1|pages=97–110|url=https://ejal.info/article-view/?id=136|access-date=5 December 2025}}</ref> Enrolment rates vary across educational levels, with near-universal enrolment in primary education (97.9%), but drop to 81.7% and 64.2% in lower and upper secondary education and around 42.6% for tertiary education.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bps.go.id/en/statistics-table/2/MzA0IzI%3D/net-enrollment-ratio---n-e-r--.html|title=Net Enrolment Rate (NER) by Province and Education Level, 2024|publisher=Statistics Indonesia|date=2 December 2024|access-date=24 January 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite report|title=OECD Economic Surveys: Indonesia 2024|date=26 November 2024|work=OECD Economic Surveys|series=OECD Economic Surveys: Indonesia|publisher=OECD Publishing|doi=10.1787/de87555a-en|isbn=978-92-64-49438-1}}</ref>

Government spending on education accounted for approximately 1.3% of GDP in 2023.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.XPD.TOTL.GD.ZS?locations=ID|title=Government expenditure on education, total (% of GDP) - Indonesia|publisher=World Bank|access-date=8 May 2025}}</ref> In 2022, there were 4,481 higher education institutions in the country, including universities, Islamic institutions, and open universities.<ref>{{cite book|last=Moeliodihardjo|first=B.Y.|title=Higher Education Development and Study Abroad Experiences of Faculty in Indonesia|publisher=Springer|date=11 August 2024|page=123|isbn=978-981-97-0775-1}}</ref> Among these, the [[University of Indonesia]], [[Gadjah Mada University]], and the [[Bandung Institute of Technology]] stand out as the country's leading institutions, all ranking within the world's top 300 universities.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.topuniversities.com/universities/indonesia?country=[ID]&sorting=[rankings_htol|title=List of Universities in Indonesia|publisher=[[QS World University Rankings]]|access-date=21 January 2025}}</ref>

Issues regarding quality and equity are persistent, particularly urban–rural disparities, inadequate infrastructure, and a lack of qualified teachers, whose wages are lower than those in neighbouring countries.<ref>{{citation|title=Analysis of the Sociological Perspective of Education: Educational Gaps in Affecting Social Mobility in Indonesia|last=Novianti|first=D.M.|date=7 June 2024|doi=10.31235/osf.io/eh4y3}}</ref><ref>{{cite report|last1=Chang|first1=M.C.|display-authors=etal|title=Teacher Reform in Indonesia: The Role of Politics and Evidence in Policy Making|date=2014|series=Directions in Development|publisher=World Bank Group|doi=10.1596/978-0-8213-9829-6|doi-access=free|page=18|isbn=978-0-8213-9829-6}}</ref> The system also lags behind international benchmarks, such as the [[Programme for International Student Assessment]] (PISA), where Indonesian students consistently rank near the bottom in reading, mathematics, and science.<ref>{{cite report|title=OECD Investment Policy Reviews: Indonesia 2020|date=16 December 2020|series=OECD Investment Policy Reviews|publisher=OECD Publishing, Paris|doi=10.1787/b56512da-en|isbn=978-92-64-65526-3}}</ref> The higher education sector has been struggling with underfunding, low quality, limited research output and a mismatch between graduates' skills and labour market needs.<ref>{{cite report|title=Higher Education for Technology and Innovation Project (RRP INO 5233) - Sector Assessment: Education|url=https://www.adb.org/projects/documents/ino-52332-001-rrp|date=August 2021|work=OECD Economic Surveys|publisher=Asian Development Bank}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.universityworldnews.com/post.php?story=20240124125713987|title=Universities chase 'world class' status but lack funds|publisher=University World News|last=Yamin|first=K.|date=24 January 2024|access-date=24 January 2025|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240124172338/https://www.universityworldnews.com/post.php?story=20240124125713987|archive-date=24 January 2025}}</ref>

=== Healthcare ===
{{Main|Healthcare in Indonesia}}
[[File:Ciptomangun-hospital.jpg|thumb|[[Dr. Cipto Mangunkusumo Hospital]] in Jakarta|alt=]]
Indonesia has made significant progress in developing its [[Healthcare in Indonesia|healthcare system]] since 1945. Initially, healthcare services were limited, with a shortage of doctors, hospitals, and infrastructure.<ref name="APO" /> In the late 1960s, the government began establishing [[Puskesmas|community health centres]] (''puskesmas'') to provide basic services in rural areas.<ref name="APO">{{cite journal|last1=Mahendradhata|first1=Y.|last2=Trisnantoro|first2=L.|last3=Listyadewi|first3=S.|last4=Soewondo|first4=P.|last5=Marthias|first5=T.|last6=Harimurti|first6=P.|last7=Prawira|first7=J.|title=The Republic of Indonesia health system review|journal=Health Systems in Transition|date=10 March 2017|volume=7|issue=1|hdl=10665/254716}}</ref> With the help of the [[World Health Organization]] in the 1970s and 1980s, Indonesia implemented an immunisation program to combat diseases like polio and measles.<ref name="BMC">{{citation|title=Ensuring sustainability of polio immunization in health system transition: lessons from the polio eradication initiative in Indonesia|journal=BMC Public Health|last1=Azizatunnisa|first1=L.|last2=Cintyamena|first2=U.|last3=Mahendradhata|first3=Y.|last4=A.|first4=Riris Andono|volume=21|date=6 September 2021|issue=1|page=1624|doi=10.1186/s12889-021-11642-7|doi-access=free|pmid=34488698|pmc=8419659}}</ref> The system experienced a major transformation in 2014 with the launch of ''[[Healthcare in Indonesia#Universal health coverage|Jaminan Kesehatan Nasional]]'' (JKN), a [[universal health care]] managed by the [[BPJS Kesehatan|Social Security Agency on Health]] (''BPJS Kesehatan'').<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Kosasih|first1=D.M.|display-authors=etal|date=12 May 2022|title=Determinant factors behind changes in health-seeking behaviour before and after implementation of universal health coverage in Indonesia|journal=BMC Public Health|publisher=Springer Nature Link|volume=22|doi=10.1186/s12889-022-13142-8|number=952|article-number=952|doi-access=free|pmid=35549931|pmc=9102261}}</ref> It is one of the world's largest [[Single-payer healthcare|single-payer systems]], covering over 95% of the population (265 million people) by 2023.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Hospital inpatient in Indonesia: Does national health insurance matter?|journal=Clinical Epidemiology and Global Health|last= Wulandari|first=R.D.|display-authors=etal|volume=35|date=2025|article-number=102155|doi=10.1016/j.cegh.2025.102155}}</ref>

Government spending on healthcare accounted for 2.69% of GDP in 2022.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.XPD.CHEX.GD.ZS?locations=ID|title=Current health expenditure (% of GDP)|publisher=World Bank|access-date=8 May 2025}}</ref> Primary healthcare is delivered through ''puskesmas'', hospitals, and private clinics.<ref name="APO" /> While the healthcare system lags behind those in ASEAN neighbours like Malaysia and Singapore,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Asa|first1=G.A.|display-authors=etal|date=10 January 2024|title=Medical tourism among Indonesians: a scoping review|journal=BMC Health Services Research|publisher=Springer Nature Link|volume=24|doi=10.1186/s12913-023-10528-1|number=49|article-number=49|doi-access=free|pmid=38200510|pmc=10782758}}</ref> significant public health outcomes have been achieved, such as an increase in life expectancy (from 54.9 years in 1973 to 71.1 years in 2023),<ref>{{Cite web|title=Life expectancy|url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/life-expectancy?country=~IDN|access-date=21 January 2025|website=Our World in Data}}</ref> a decline in child mortality (from 15.5 deaths per 100 live births in 1972 to 2.1 deaths in 2022),<ref>{{Cite web|title=Child mortality rate|url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/child-mortality-igme?tab=line&country=~IDN|access-date=21 January 2025|website=Our World in Data}}</ref> polio eradication in 2014,<ref name="BMC" /> and decreasing cases of malaria.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Jupp|first1=D.|display-authors=etal|date=27 February 2024|title=How using light touch immersion research revealed important insights into the lack of progress in malaria elimination in Eastern Indonesia|journal=Malaria Journal|publisher=Springer Nature Link|volume=23|doi=10.1186/s12936-024-04865-7|number=59|article-number=59|doi-access=free|pmid=38413921|pmc=10898039}}</ref>

Some chronic health issues persist, including [[Stunted growth|child stunting]] that affects 21.6% of children under five according to a 2022 data.<ref>{{citation|title=Stunting in Indonesia: Understanding the roots of the problem and solutions|publisher=Center for Parliamentary Analysis, Expertise Agency of DPR RI|last=Puji Lestari|first=T.R.|work=Info Singkat|url=https://pusaka.dpr.go.id/produk/info-singkat|volume=15|issue=14|date=July 2023}}</ref> Low air quality, particularly in major cities,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.iqair.com/indonesia|title=Air Quality in Indonesia|publisher=IQ Air|access-date=26 January 2025}}</ref> contributes to respiratory illnesses, while maternal and child health indicators remain areas of concern, with a [[Maternal death|maternal mortality]] rate the third highest in the region.<ref>{{cite journal|title=High maternal mortality rate in Indonesia: a challenge to be addressed immediately|journal=Pan African Medical Journal|publisher=One Health|last=Suparji|display-authors=etal|volume=14|issue=13|date=19 July 2024|doi=10.11604/pamj-oh.2024.14.13.44464|doi-access=free}}</ref> Additionally, Indonesia has one of the [[Smoking in Indonesia|highest smoking rates]] globally (34.8% of adults), contributing to a high prevalence of non-communicable diseases like cardiovascular issues and lung cancer.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Indonesia: The tobacco industry's "Disneyland"|journal= Canadian Medical Association Journal|last=Webster|first=P.C.|volume=185|issue=2|date=5 February 2013|pages=E97–E98|doi=10.1503/cmaj.109-4342|pmid=23296586|pmc=3563903}}</ref>

== Culture ==
{{Main|Culture of Indonesia}}
{{See also|National Intangible Cultural Heritage of Indonesia|Public holidays in Indonesia}}
Indonesia's culture reflects more than two millennia of interaction between indigenous traditions and external influences. Its cultural development has been shaped by Austronesian and Melanesian heritage, as well as sustained contact with the Indian subcontinent, China, the Middle East, and Europe through trade, migration, and colonisation.{{sfn|Forshee|2006|pp=8-9}}<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last=Henley|first=D.|title=Indonesia|date=2015|encyclopedia=The Wiley Blackwell Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity, and Nationalism|pages=1–7|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc.|doi=10.1002/9781118663202.wberen460|isbn=978-1-118-66320-2}}</ref> These interactions have produced a society characterised by diversity in culture, language and ethnicity,<ref name="sevenhund" /><ref name="BPS" /> including artistic expression and social practice. 

Indonesia currently has [[UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists|16 items recognised by UNESCO as Intangible Cultural Heritage]], including [[wayang]] puppet theatre, [[batik]], [[angklung]], the [[saman dance]], and [[pencak silat]], with recent joint nominations adding [[pantun]], [[kebaya]], and [[kolintang]] to the list.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/state/indonesia-ID?info=elements-on-the-lists|title=Indonesia – Intangible heritage, cultural sector|publisher=UNESCO|access-date=21 January 2025}}</ref>

=== Art and architecture ===
{{Main|Indonesian art|Architecture of Indonesia}}
{{Further|Indonesian painting}}
[[File:Raden Saleh - Diponegoro arrest.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|''[[The Arrest of Pangeran Diponegoro]]'' (1857) by [[Raden Saleh]]]]

Indonesian visual arts encompass a wide range of traditional and contemporary forms that reflect regional diversity and historical exchange.{{sfn|Forshee|2006|pp=7-9, 52-67}} Bali's [[Balinese art|artistic traditions]], such as classical [[Kamasan]] and [[Wayang]]-style painting, are renowned, originating from visual narratives depicted on [[Candi of Indonesia|candi]] bas-reliefs from eastern Java.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Campbell|first1=S.|date=2014|title=Kamasan Art in Museum Collections: 'Entangled' Histories of Art Collecting in Bali|journal=Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde|publisher=Brill|volume=170|pages=250–280|doi=10.1163/22134379-17002001}}</ref> Traditional architecture varies significantly among ethnic groups and regions, with iconic and traditional houses (''[[rumah adat]]'') like Toraja's ''[[Tongkonan]]'', Minangkabau's ''[[Rumah Gadang]]'', Java's ''[[Pendopo]]'', and [[Dayak people|Dayak]] longhouses each showcasing unique local customs and histories.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Oup15S3lTDAC|title= Indonesian Houses Volume 1: Tradition and Transformation in Vernacular Architecture|publisher=National University of Singapore Press|year=2004|isbn=978-9971-69-292-6|editor1=Reimar Schefold|editor2=Peter Nas|editor3=Gaudenz Domenig|page=5|access-date=31 May 2020|doi=10.1163/9789004483255}}</ref>

[[Megalithic art|Megalithic sculptures]] discovered in parts of Sumatra, Sulawesi, and eastern Indonesia illustrate tribal arts among communities such as the Nias, Batak, Asmat, Dayak, and Toraja peoples.<ref name="Tara" /><ref>{{cite journal|last=Maiullari|first=M.|title=Hampatongs in the Daily Life of the Ngaju Dayaks|journal=Borneo Research Bulletin|publisher=The Free Library|date=1 January 2004}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=de Hontheim|first=A.|title=Imagination behind Shape: The Invisible Content of Asmat Artefacts|journal=Anthropological Forum|volume=20|issue=3|date=12 October 2010|pages=235–249|doi=10.1080/00664677.2010.515292}}</ref> From the 8th to the 15th centuries, the Javanese civilisation excelled in sophisticated stone sculpting and architecture, heavily influenced by the Hindu-Buddhist Dharmic culture.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Sculpture of Indonesia|last=Fontein|first=J.|publisher=Abrams, Inc|date=1 October 1990|isbn=978-0-894-68141-7}}</ref> This period produced monumental works like the [[Borobudur]] and [[Prambanan]] temples.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/592|title=Borobudur Temple Compounds|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=21 January 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/642|title=Prambanan Temple Compounds|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=25 December 2025}}</ref> both of which are emblematic of Indonesia's cultural heritage.

=== Music, dance and clothing ===
{{Main|Music of Indonesia|Dance in Indonesia|National costume of Indonesia}}
[[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Katoenen wikkelrok met geometrisch patroon TMnr 5713-2.jpg|thumb|right|upright|An Indonesian [[batik]]]]
Music and dance play an important role in Indonesian cultural life and have long been associated with ritual, storytelling, and communal gatherings. Indigenous musical traditions predate written records, with tribes employing instruments like the [[angklung]], [[gamelan]], and [[sasando]]. Over time, external influences enriched Indonesian music, such as the [[Qanbūs|gambus]] and [[qasida]] from the Middle East,<ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Harnish|editor1-first=David|editor2-last=Rasmussen|editor2-first=Anne|title=Divine Inspirations|date=2011|doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195385410.001.0001|isbn=978-0-19-538541-0|pages=207–240}}</ref> [[Kroncong|keroncong]] from Portugal,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Sukmayadi|first1=Yudi|last2=Milyartini|first2=Rita|last3=Ridhwan|first3=Urfan Saniylabdhawega|title=Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Arts and Design Education (ICADE 2021)|chapter=Keroncong, Existence, and Z Generation|date=2022|volume=665|doi=10.2991/assehr.k.220601.065|isbn=978-94-6239-583-1}}</ref> and [[dangdut]], which incorporates Hindi, Malay, and Middle Eastern elements.<ref>{{cite book|editor-first1=Ariel|editor-last1=Heryanto|title=Popular Culture in Indonesia|date=2008|doi=10.4324/9780203895627|isbn=978-1-134-04407-8|page=13}}</ref> Today, Indonesian music enjoys regional popularity in Malaysia and Singapore due to cultural similarities and [[Comparison of Indonesian and Standard Malay|language intelligibility]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Rossa|first1=C.D.|display-authors=etal|title=The Music Genre Preferences of Malaysian Teenagers Toward Indonesian Music|publisher=UNNES (Semarang State University)|journal=Catharsis: Journal of Arts Education|date=30 June 2025|volume=14|number=1|pages=34–43|doi=10.15294/catharsis.v14i1.25856|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Sunarti|first1=L.|display-authors=etal|title=Travelling songs: Heritage and popular culture in contemporary ASEAN|publisher=Taylor & Francis Group|journal=Cogent Arts & Humanities|date=5 April 2023|volume=10|issue=3|doi=10.1080/23311983.2023.2198313|doi-access=free|article-number=2198313}}</ref>

Indonesia is home to more than 3,000 traditional dances, many of which originated in rituals and religious worship,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://indonesia-tourism.com/general/theatre.html|title=Indonesia Tourism: The Dance and Theater in the Archipelago|publisher=Indonesia Tourism|access-date=24 November 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101124083455/http://indonesia-tourism.com/general/theatre.html|archive-date=24 November 2010}}</ref> such as the dance of witch doctors and [[Hudoq]], as well as periods of Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic influence. In contemporary Indonesia, traditional dances like those of Java, Bali, and Dayak continue to be a living tradition<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nhb.gov.sg/spm/-/media/spm/documents/indonesia-land-of-dance-and-dragon.pdf?la=en|title=Land of Dance & Dragon|publisher=National Heritage Board|last=Lin|first=C.M.|date=January–March 2011|access-date=6 December 2020|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201206060336/https://www.nhb.gov.sg/spm/-/media/spm/documents/indonesia-land-of-dance-and-dragon.pdf?la=en|archive-date=6 December 2020}}</ref>
amid the growing popularity of modern and urban dances shaped by Western and South Korean cultures, such as [[hip-hop]] and [[K-pop]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Oh|first1=C.|title=Authenticities of K-pop Cover Dance Influencers in/from Bali, Indonesia|publisher=Taylor & Francis Online|journal=Dance Chronicle|date=10 September 2024|volume=47|issue=3|pages=407–432|doi=10.1080/01472526.2024.2384976}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Dahlan|first1=A.F.|last2=Adi|first2=I.R.|title=Ideology, Values and Norms in Hip-hop Community Wijilan Yogyakarta: An Ethnographic Study|publisher=Gadjah Mada University|journal=Rubikon: Journal of Transnational American Studies|date=April 2025|volume=12|number=1|pages=57–85|doi=10.22146/rubikon.v12i1.101571|doi-access=free}}</ref> 

Clothing traditions also vary widely across the archipelago. ''[[Batik]]'' and ''[[kebaya]]'' are widely recognised as national attire, with predominant roots in Javanese culture.{{sfn|Forshee|2006|pp=65, 143}} Traditional attire varies by region and province, such as the Batak [[ulos]], Malay and Minangkabau [[songket]], and Sasak [[ikat]], and is commonly worn for ceremonies, weddings, and formal events.{{sfn|Forshee|2006|pp=138-147}}

=== Theatre and cinema ===
{{Main|Cinema of Indonesia|Theatre of Indonesia}}
{{Further|List of highest-grossing films in Indonesia}}
[[File:Wayang Wong Bharata Pandawa.jpg|thumb|left|The ''[[Pandava]]s'' and ''[[Krishna]]'' in an act of the ''Wayang Wong'' performance|alt=]]
Traditional Indonesian theatre encompasses a variety of performance forms that combine storytelling, music, and visual art. ''Wayang'' shadow puppetry is one of the best-known forms, often depicting Hindu epics like the ''Ramayana'' and ''Mahabharata''.<ref>{{cite book|last=Sears|first=L.J.|title=Shadows of Empire: Colonial Discourse and Javanese Tales|publisher=Duke University Press|year=1996|isbn=978-0-8223-9804-2|doi=10.1215/9780822398042}}</ref> Other theatrical traditions include ''[[Ludruk]]'', ''[[Ketoprak]]'', ''[[Sandiwara]]'', ''[[Lenong]]'',<ref>{{cite book|title=Routledge Handbook of Asian Theatre|editor-last=Liu|editor-first=S.|chapter=Traditional Indonesian theatre|last1=Sedana|first1=I.N.|last2=Foley|first2=K.|publisher=Routledge|date=2016|isbn=978-0-415-82155-1}}</ref> and Balinese dance dramas, which often incorporate humour, music, and audience interaction.<ref>{{cite book|title=Balinese Dance, Drama & Music: A Guide to the Performing Arts of Bali|last1=Dibiya|first1=I.W.|last2=Ballinger|first2=R.|publisher=Periplus|date=2004|isbn=978-0-804-84183-2}}</ref> Regional performance traditions reflect local histories and values like the Minangkabau ''[[Randai]]'', which combines music, dance, and martial arts (''[[silat]]'') to recount legends and historical narratives.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Daughters Take Over? Female Performers in Randai Theatre|last=Pauka|first=K.|journal=The Drama Review|volume=42|issue=1|pages=113–121|year=1998|doi=10.1162/105420498760308706}}</ref> In the modern period, theatre groups such as ''Teater Koma'', have used satire to address social and political themes.<ref>{{cite book|title=Resistance on the National Stage: Theater and Politics in Late New Order Indonesia|last=Bodden|first=M.H.|publisher=Ohio University Press|series=Research in International Studies, Southeast Asia Series|date=2010|isbn=978-0-89680-469-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Bachmid|first=T.|date=5 September 2016|title=Celebrating the Right to be Hybrid: Sie Jin Kwie: A Play by Indonesian Group, Teater Koma|journal=SPAFA Journal|publisher=SEAMEO SPAFA|volume=21|number=3}}</ref>

Indonesia's film industry began during the Dutch colonial period with the release of ''[[Loetoeng Kasaroeng]]'' (1926)<ref name="INACine">{{citation|last1=de Leon Espena|first1=D.M.|title=Cinema and politics: the creation of postcolonial self/other and the shaping of strategic cultures in Southeast Asia, 1945-1967|publisher=Nanyang Technological University|doi=10.32657/10356/69958|doi-access=free|date=2017|type=thesis}}</ref> and it expanded post-independence with [[Usmar Ismail]]'s pioneering work in the 1950s.<ref name="INACine" /><ref>{{cite web|url=https://time.com/5206668/google-doodle-usmar-ismail-indonesia/|title=Today Is the 97th Birthday of the Father of Indonesian Cinema. Here's What You Should Know About Usmar Ismail|publisher=TIME|date=20 March 2018|access-date=20 November 2019|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250224191940/https://time.com/5206668/google-doodle-usmar-ismail-indonesia/|archive-date=24 February 2025}}</ref> During the latter part of the Sukarno era in the 1960s, films were used to promote nationalism and anti-Western sentiment,<ref name="INACine" /> while Suharto's New Order imposed [[Censorship in Indonesia|censorship]] to maintain social order.<ref name="Krishna Sen">{{cite book|last=Sen|first=K.|editor-last=Giecko|editor-first=A.T.|title=Contemporary Asian Cinema, Indonesia: Screening a Nation in the Post-New Order|publisher=Berg|year=2006|location=Oxford/New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/contemporaryasia0000unse/page/96 96–107]|isbn=978-1-84520-237-8|url=https://archive.org/details/contemporaryasia0000unse/page/96}}</ref> Film productions peaked in the 1980s with notable titles such as ''[[Satan's Slave (1980 film)|Pengabdi Setan]]'' (1980), ''[[Tjoet Nja' Dhien]]'' (1988) and ''[[Warkop]]'' comedy films, but the industry declined in the 1990s.<ref name="brill">{{cite journal|last=Paramaditha|first=I.|title=Film Studies in Indonesia: An Experiment of a New Generation|journal=Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences of Southeast Asia|publisher=Brill|date=1 January 2017|volume=173|issue=2–3|pages=357–375|doi=10.1163/22134379-17302006|doi-access=free}}</ref>

In the post-Suharto era, the industry saw a resurgence.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Huda|first1=A.N.|title=Indonesian Cinema after the New Order: Going Mainstream|journal=Journal of Religion & Film|publisher=Digital Commons at the University of Nebraska Ohama|date=April 2022|volume=26|issue=1|doi=10.32873/uno.dc.jrf.26.01.55|doi-access=free}}</ref> Independent filmmakers tackled previously censored themes like race, religion, and love,<ref name="Krishna Sen" /> producing notable films such as ''Kuldesak'' (1999) and ''[[Ada Apa dengan Cinta?]]'' (2002).<ref name="brill" /> The [[Indonesian Film Festival]] (''Festival Film Indonesia''), which gives out the [[Citra Award]], has celebrated cinematic achievements since 1955.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Undiana|first1=N.N.|last2=Abdullah|first2=A.|last3=Agustin|first3=H.|last4=Wirakusumah|first4=T.K.|title=Identity of the National Film Festival in Indonesia|journal=Revista Guillermo de Ockham|publisher=Universidad de San Buenaventura|date=19 December 2024|volume=23|number=1|pages=157–173|doi=10.21500/22563202.7068}}</ref>

=== Literature and mass media ===
{{Main|Indonesian literature|Mass media in Indonesia}}
[[File:Pramudya Ananta Tur Kesusastraan Modern Indonesia p226.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[Pramoedya Ananta Toer]] was considered to be Southeast Asia's leading candidate for a [[Nobel Prize in Literature]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Puspita|first1=I.|date=December 2008|title=Pramoedya Ananta Toer's Voice for Humanity Values Vs. Javanese Tradition in "The Girl from the Coast"|journal=Journal of English and Education|volume=2|doi=10.20885/jee.vol2.iss2.art5|number=2|pages=63–81}}</ref>]]

Media and literary traditions in Indonesia reflect both historical continuity and technological change. Early literature include [[Sanskrit]] inscriptions from the 5th century and a strong [[oral tradition]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sil.org/asia/ldc/parallel_papers/unesco_jakarta.pdf|title=Preserving intangible cultural heritage in Indonesia|last1=Czermak|first1=K.|last2=Delanghe|first2=P.|last3=Weng|first3=W.|publisher=SIL International|access-date=9 July 2007|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070709194435/http://www.sil.org/asia/ldc/parallel_papers/unesco_jakarta.pdf|archive-date=9 July 2007}}</ref> later expressed through written forms such as  ''[[syair]]'', ''[[pantun]]'', ''[[hikayat]]'', and ''[[babad]]''.{{sfn|Forshee|2006|pp=67-70}} Notable works in this category include ''[[Hikayat Hang Tuah]]'' and ''[[Babad Tanah Jawi]]''. The establishment of ''[[Balai Pustaka]]'' in 1917 marked a push to develop indigenous literature, leading to a literary Golden Age in the 1950s and 1960s.<ref name="literary">{{cite web|url=https://jakartaglobe.id/lifestyle/introduction-literature-indonesia-2015-frankfurt-book-fairs-guest-honor/|title=An Introduction to the Literature of Indonesia, 2015 Frankfurt Book Fair's Guest of Honor|last=Boediman|first=M.|work=Jakarta Globe|date=14 October 2015|access-date=26 June 2020|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250114135901/https://jakartaglobe.id/lifestyle/introduction-literature-indonesia-2015-frankfurt-book-fairs-guest-honor|archive-date=14 January 2025}}</ref> Early modern literature originates in the Sumatran tradition<ref>{{cite book|last=Joy Freidus|first=A.|year=1977|title=Sumatran Contributions to the Development of Indonesian Literature, 1920–1942|publisher=Asian Studies Program, University of Hawaii}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Tham|first=S.C.|title=Essays on Literature and Society in Southeast Asia: Political and Sociological Perspectives|page=99|date=1981|location=Kent Ridge, Singapore|publisher=Singapore University Press|isbn=978-9971-69-036-6|url={{Google books|id=h6SOvP6FLskC|page=99|plainurl=yes}}}}</ref> and has been shaped by political and social change,<ref name="literary" /><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2016/may/28/why-isnt-more-indonesia-literature-translated-english|title='17,000 islands of imagination': discovering Indonesian literature|work=The Guardian|last=Doughty|first=L.|date=28 May 2016|access-date=26 June 2020|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160529122114/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2016/may/28/why-isnt-more-indonesia-literature-translated-english|archive-date=29 May 2016}}</ref> producing works from notable figures like [[Chairil Anwar]], [[Pramoedya Ananta Toer]], and [[Ayu Utami]].{{sfn|Ricklefs|2001|pp=264}}

[[Media of Indonesia|Media]] freedom in Indonesia significantly improved after the fall of Suharto's rule, during which the Ministry of Information tightly controlled the media.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Shannon L.|first1=S.|last2=Lloyd|first2=G.J.|title=Indonesia Today: Challenges of History|publisher=Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies|year=2001|location=Melbourne|isbn=978-0-7425-1761-5}}</ref> The early years of the post-Suharto era was marked by a proliferation of print and electronic media amid greater press freedom.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kitley|first1=P.|title=Television, Nation, and Culture in Indonesia|publisher=Ohio University Press|series=Research in International Studies, Southeast Asia Series|date=2000|edition=1|isbn=0-86840-598-1}}</ref><ref>{{citation|last1=Wiratraman|first1=H.P.|title=Press freedom, law and politics in Indonesia: a socio-legal study|date=11 December 2014|publisher=Leiden University Scholarly Publication|hdl=1887/30106|isbn=978-94-6203-733-5}}</ref> Internet use, which began in the early 1990s after the first Internet service provider went commercial,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Jennifer Yang|first1=H.|title=The Internet in Indonesia: Development and Impact of Radical Websites|publisher=Routledge|journal=Studies in Conflict & Terrorism|date=12 January 2010|volume=33|issue=2|pages=171–191|doi=10.1080/10576100903400605|hdl=10356/79840|hdl-access=free}}</ref> grew rapidly after 2000<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/share-of-individuals-using-the-internet?tab=chart&country=~IDN&mapSelect=~IDN|title=Share of the population using the Internet - Indonesia|publisher=Our World in Data|access-date=18 July 2025}}</ref> and began transforming patters of media consumption, which had become evident during the 2010s.<ref>{{citation|last1=Syarief|first1=S.|title=Indonesian Mainstream Media in the Digital Age: Corporate Convergence, Low-quality News and Staff Exploitation|work=ISEAS Perspective|date=18 April 2024|volume=29|publisher=ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute|number=29|url=https://www.iseas.edu.sg/?p=63771}}</ref> By 2023, the country had 210 million internet users, with mobile phones as the primary point of access.<ref>{{cite report|title=The Rise of Indonesia's Digital Economy|url=https://lkyspp.nus.edu.sg/docs/default-source/case-studies/the-rise-of-indonesia-s-digital-economy.pdf?sfvrsn=c607020a_0|last=Taojun|first=X.|date=March 2025|access-date=8 May 2025|work=LKYSPP Case Study Library|publisher=Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250508031750/https://lkyspp.nus.edu.sg/docs/default-source/case-studies/the-rise-of-indonesia-s-digital-economy.pdf?sfvrsn=c607020a_0|archive-date=8 May 2025}}</ref>

=== Cuisine ===
{{Main|Indonesian cuisine}}
[[File:Nasi ramas rendang.JPG|thumb|left|''[[Nasi Padang]]'' with ''[[rendang]]'', ''[[gulai]]'', and vegetables is one of the [[Padang cuisine|Minangkabau cuisines]].|alt=]]

Indonesian cuisine reflects the country's geographic diversity, cultural plurality, and long history of external contact. It comprises numerous regional traditions shaped by indigenous practices and foreign influences, including Chinese, Middle Eastern, Indian, African, and European cuisines.<ref>{{cite book|last=Witton|first=P.|title=World Food: Indonesia|publisher=[[Lonely Planet]]|year=2002|location=Melbourne|isbn=978-1-74059-009-9}}</ref> Rice is the primary [[staple food]] across much of the archipelago and is typically served with side dishes of meat, vegetables, or fish.<ref name="WijayaS" /> Fundamental ingredients include spices—particularly chilli—along with [[coconut milk]],<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Yayusman|first1=M.S.|display-authors=etal|date=20 November 2023|title=On considering Australia: exploring Indonesian restaurants in promoting ethnic foods as an instrument of Indonesian gastrodiplomacy|journal=Journal of Ethnic Foods|publisher=Springer Nature Link|volume=10|doi=10.1186/s42779-023-00207-1|number=43|article-number=43|doi-access=free}}</ref> fish, and chicken, which contribute to the distinctive flavour profiles found across different regions.<ref name="WijayaS">{{cite journal|last1=Wijaya|first1=S.|date=18 September 2019|title=Indonesian food culture mapping: a starter contribution to promote Indonesian culinary tourism|journal=Journal of Ethnic Foods|publisher=Springer Nature Link|volume=6|doi=10.1186/s42779-019-0009-3|number=9|article-number=9|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Some popular dishes, such as ''[[nasi goreng]]'', ''[[gado-gado]]'', ''[[Noodle|mie]]'', and ''[[Satay|sate]]'', are widely consumed throughout the country.{{sfn|Forshee|2006|pp=131-133}} Regional cuisines remain strongly associated with local identities, with [[Padang cuisine|Minangkabau dishes]] like ''[[rendang]]''{{sfn|Forshee|2006|pp=132}} gaining international recognition.<ref name="WijayaS" /> Fermented foods also form part of Indonesian culinary traditions, including ''[[oncom]]'', which is produced using various fungal cultures and is especially prevalent in West Java.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Sastraatmadja|first1=D.D.|display-authors=etal|year=2002|title=Production of High-Quality Oncom, a Traditional Indonesian Fermented Food, by the Inoculation with Selected Mold Strains in the Form of Pure Culture and Solid Inoculum|journal=Journal of the Graduate School of Agriculture, Hokkaido University|volume=70|hdl=115/13163}}</ref> In 2014, the Ministry of Tourism designated ''[[tumpeng]]'' as an icon of Indonesian traditional cuisine, symbolising the nation's diverse food cultures.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=A.P. Jati|first1=I.R.|title=Local wisdom behind Tumpeng as an icon of Indonesian traditional cuisine|publisher=Emerald Publishing|journal=Nutrition & Food Science|date=8 July 2014|volume=44|number=4|pages=324–334|doi=10.1108/NFS-11-2013-0141}}</ref>

=== Sports ===
{{Main|Sports in Indonesia|Indonesian martial arts}}
[[File:Pencak Silat Betawi 1.jpg|thumb|upright|A demonstration of ''[[pencak silat]]'', a form of martial arts]]
Sports in Indonesia include both internationally competitive disciplines and traditional activities. [[Association football]] is the most popular sport in terms of nationwide engagement and interest.<ref name="soccer">{{cite journal|last1=Prawira|first1=A.|last2=Suhianto|first2=Y.|title=The Development of the Indonesian Football Industry and its influence Towards National Reputation|journal=Sentris|publisher=Student Study Group for International Issues - Parahyangan Catholic University|date=29 November 2024|volume=5|number=2|pages=89–99}}</ref> The [[Super League (Indonesia)|Super League]] functions as the country's top-tier competition. [[Indonesia national football team|Indonesia]] was the first Asian representative to appear at the [[FIFA World Cup]], taking part in the [[1938 FIFA World Cup|1938 tournament]] as the Dutch East Indies.<ref name="soccer" /> Despite its popularity, the national program has only achieved limited success at the regional level, such as the [[Southeast Asian Games]] (SEA Games).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-41651047|title=Southeast Asian Games final: Indonesia 5-2 Thailand - two mass brawls and four players sent off|publisher=BBC|date=17 May 2023|access-date=25 December 2025|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230518041406/https://www.bbc.com/sport/football/65619220|archive-date=18 May 2025}}</ref>

[[Badminton]] has produced Indonesia's most notable international sporting results.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Al Ardha|first1=M.A.|display-authors=etal|date=1 November 2024|title=Analysis of badminton research trend in the last three decades: bibliographic analysis of Scopus journal database|journal=Retos|volume=60|pages=129–139|doi=10.47197/retos.v60.102822}}</ref> The country is among the few to have won both the [[Thomas Cup|Thomas]] and [[Uber Cup]]s, the world team championship of men's and women's badminton.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://bwfthomasubercups.bwfbadminton.com/history/|title=The Historic Journey of the Thomas Cup & Uber Cup|publisher=BWF Badminton|access-date=21 July 2025|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250619125358/https://bwfthomasubercups.bwfbadminton.com/history/|archive-date=19 June 2025}}</ref> Together with [[Olympic weightlifting|weightlifting]], badminton contributes the largest share of [[Indonesia at the Olympics|Indonesia's Olympic gold medals]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Muammar|first=E.|title=Stagnation of Achievements of Indonesian Athletes at the International Level|journal=Journal Research of Social Science, Economics, and Management|publisher=Publikasi Indonesia|date=April 2025|volume=4|number=9|pages=1099–1114|doi=10.59141/jrssem.v4i9.813}}</ref> Other popular sports include [[boxing]] and basketball, which were featured in the country's multi-sport event [[National Sports Week]] (''Pekan Olahraga Nasional'', PON) in 1948.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nblindonesia.com/v1/index.php?page=abouten|title=History of Basketball in Indonesia|publisher=National Basketball League Indonesia|access-date=8 September 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160908220708/http://www.nblindonesia.com/v1/index.php?page=abouten|archive-date=8 September 2016}}</ref>

Examples of traditional sports include ''[[sepak takraw]]'', bull racing (''[[karapan sapi]]'') in [[Madura]],{{sfn|Forshee|2006|pp=176}}<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Debby|first1=A.S.|last2=Setiawan|first2=A.R.|title=Karapan Sapi (Cow Race) Cultures in Madura: Economics Values and Owners' Prestige|journal=International Journal of Religious and Cultural Studies|date=25 December 2023|volume=5|number=2|pages=111–128|doi=10.34199/ijracs.2023.10.04|doi-access=free}}</ref> and ritual combat traditions, such as ''caci'' in [[Flores]] and ''[[pasola]]'' in [[Sumba]].{{sfn|Forshee|2006|pp=174-175, 219}} ''[[Pencak silat]]'' is an Indonesian martial art,{{sfn|Forshee|2006|pp=174}} which became an official event at the 2018 Asian Games, where Indonesia emerged as one of the leading competitors.<ref>{{cite conference|last1=Witarti|first1=D.I.|last2=Puspitasari|first2=A.|year=2019|title=The Implementation of Indonesian Soft Power through Swaggering Strategies in Asian Games 2018|conference=Second International Conference on Social, Economy, Education, and Humanity (ICoSEEH 2019)|publisher=SciTePress|volume=1|pages=187–194|doi=10.5220/0009104201870194}}</ref> In multi-sport regional competitions, Indonesia has topped the SEA Games medal table ten times since 1977,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://en.tempo.co/read/907202/lack-of-gold|title=Lack of Gold|publisher=Tempo|date=8 September 2017|access-date=16 August 2020|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416210753/https://en.tempo.co/read/907202/lack-of-gold|archive-date=16 April 2021}}</ref> and ranks second in the [[SEA Games#All-time medal table|all-time medal standings]] behind Thailand.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ismail|first1=K.|title=Risk Issues of the 29th SEA Games|journal=Asia-Pacific Journal of Innovation in Hospitality and Tourism|date=2018|volume=7|pages=53–67}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[List of Indonesia-related topics]]
* [[Outline of Indonesia]]

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Bibliography ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mZtDIhWzFeUC|title=Sociolinguistics: an international handbook of the science of language and society|editor-last=Ammon|editor-first=U.|editor-last2=Dittmar|editor-first2=N.|editor-last3=Mattheier|editor-first3=K.J.|editor-last4=Trudgill|editor-first4=P.|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|year=2006|edition=2nd, revised and extended|volume=3|isbn=978-3-11-018418-1|access-date=29 June 2010}}
* {{Citation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YgtSqB9oqDIC|title=Encyclopedia of bilingualism and bilingual education|access-date=19 May 2010|first1=C.|last1=Baker|first2=S.|last2=Prys Jones|publisher=Multilingual Matters|year=1998|isbn=978-1-85359-362-8}}
* {{cite book|last=Bevins|first=V.|author-link=Vincent Bevins|title=[[The Jakarta Method|The Jakarta Method: Washington's Anticommunist Crusade and the Mass Murder Program that Shaped Our World]]|date=2020|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1-5417-4240-6}}
* {{Citation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LT6E6YdAh-MC|title=The Phonology of Dutch.|first=G.|last=Booij|work=Oxford Linguistics|year=1999|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=0-19-823869-X|access-date=24 May 2010}}
* {{cite book|last=Cribb|first=R.|title=Historical atlas of Indonesia|publisher=[[Routledge]]|year=2013}}
* {{cite book|last=Crouch|first=H.|title=The army and politics in Indonesia|publisher=[[Cornell University Press|Cornell UP]]|year=2019}}
* {{cite journal|last=Earl|first=G.S.W.|title=On The Leading Characteristics of the Papuan, Australian and Malay-Polynesian Nations|journal=Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia|year=1850}}
* {{cite book|last=Effendy|first=B.|title=Islam and the State in Indonesia|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies|year=2003}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Emmers|first=R.|date=2005|title=Regional Hegemonies and the Exercise of Power in Southeast Asia: A Study of Indonesia and Vietnam|journal=[[Asian Survey]]|publisher=University of California Press|volume=45|issue=4|pages=645–665|doi=10.1525/as.2005.45.4.645|jstor=10.1525/as.2005.45.4.645}}
* {{cite book|last=Forshee|first=J.|title=Culture and Customs of Indonesia|date=2006|publisher=Greenwood Press|isbn=978-0-3133-3339-2}}
* {{cite book|last1=Fossati|first1=D.|first2=Y-F.|last2=Hui|title=The Indonesia national survey project: Economy, society and politics|publisher=ISEAS Publishing|year=2017}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Frederick|editor-first1=W.H.|editor-last2=Worden|editor-first2=R.L.|year=2011|title=Indonesia: A Country Study|series=Area handbook series, 39|others=Library of Congress, Federal Research Division|edition=6th|place=Washington, DC|publisher=[[U.S. Government Printing Office]]|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6dgmXWMgWcwC|isbn=978-0-8444-0790-6}}
* {{cite book|last=Friend|first=T.|title=Indonesian Destinies|publisher=[[Harvard University Press]]|year=2003|isbn=0-674-01137-6|url=https://archive.org/details/indonesiandestin00theo|url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book|last1=Hadiz|first1=V.R.|first2=R.|last2=Robison|title=The political economy of oligarchy and the reorganization of power in Indonesia|chapter=Beyond Oligarchy|publisher=[[Cornell University Press|Cornell UP]]|year=2014|pages=35–56|url=https://ecommons.cornell.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/1813/54629/INDO_96_0_1381338354_35_58.pdf?sequence=1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210519011543/https://ecommons.cornell.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/1813/54629/INDO_96_0_1381338354_35_58.pdf?sequence=1|archive-date=19 May 2021|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|last=Human Rights Watch|title=World Report 2025: Events of 2024|publisher=HRW, 2025| url=https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/media_2025/01/World%20Report%202025.pdf}}
* {{cite book|last=Indonesia|first=Statistics|title=Statistical yearbook of Indonesia 2009|publisher=Statistics Indonesia, 2019|url=https://seadelt.net/Asset/Source/Document_ID-184_No-01.pdf}}
* {{cite book|last=Kitley|first=P.|title=Television, nation, and culture in Indonesia|publisher=[[Ohio University Press]]|year=2014}}
* {{cite book|last1=Melvin|first1=Jess|title=The Army and the Indonesian Genocide|date=2018|doi=10.4324/9781351273329|isbn=978-1-351-27332-9}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Mietzner|first1=M.|first2=B.|last2=Muhtadi|title=Explaining the 2016 Islamist mobilisation in Indonesia: Religious intolerance, militant groups and the politics of accommodation|journal=Asian Studies Review|issue=42|volume=3|year=2018|pages=479–497|doi=10.1080/10357823.2018.1473335}}
* {{cite book|last=Ricklefs|first=M.C.|author-link=Merle Ricklefs|year=1991|title=A history of modern Indonesia since c. 1300|edition=2nd|place=Basingstoke; Stanford, CA|publisher=Palgrave; Stanford University Press|isbn=0-333-57690-X}}
* {{cite book|last=Ricklefs|first=M.C.|author-link=Merle Ricklefs|year=2001|title=A history of modern Indonesia since c. 1200|edition=3rd|place=Basingstoke; Stanford, CA|publisher=Palgrave; Stanford University Press|isbn=978-0-8047-4480-5}}
* {{cite book|last=Ricklefs|first=M.C.|author-link=Merle Ricklefs|year=2008|title=A history of modern Indonesia since c. 1200|edition=4th|place=Basingstoke; Stanford, CA|publisher=Palgrave; Stanford University Press|isbn=978-0-804-76130-7}}
* {{cite book|last=Robinson|first=G.B.|date=2018|title=The Killing Season: A History of the Indonesian Massacres, 1965–66|url=https://press.princeton.edu/titles/11135.html|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|isbn=978-1-4008-8886-3}}
* {{cite book|last=Schwarz|first=A.|year=1994|title=A Nation in Waiting: Indonesia in the 1990s|publisher=Westview Press|isbn=1-86373-635-2|url=https://archive.org/details/nationinwaitingi00schw}}
* {{cite book|last=Taylor|first=J.B.|title=Indonesia|publisher=[[Yale University Press]]|year=2003|url=https://archive.org/details/indonesia00jean|isbn=978-0-300-09709-2}}
* {{cite book|last=Taylor|first=J.G.|title=East Timor: the price of Freedom|publisher=Zed Books|year=1999}}
* {{cite book|last=Vickers|first=A.|title=A History of Modern Indonesia|edition=2nd|url=https://www.cambridge.org/universitypress/subjects/history/south-east-asian-history/history-modern-indonesia-2nd-edition|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2013|isbn=978-1-107-62445-0}}
* {{cite book|last1=Whitten|first1=T.|last2=Soeriaatmadja|first2=R.E.|last3=Suraya|first3=A.A.|year=1996|title=The Ecology of Java and Bali|publisher=Periplus Editions|location=Hong Kong}}
* Winters, Jeffrey A. "Oligarchy and democracy in Indonesia." in ''Beyond Oligarchy'' (Cornell UP, 2014) pp.&nbsp;11–34. [https://ecommons.cornell.edu/bitstream/handle/1813/54621/INDO_96_0_1381338354_11_34.pdf?sequence=1 online] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201023093720/https://ecommons.cornell.edu/bitstream/handle/1813/54621/INDO_96_0_1381338354_11_34.pdf?sequence=1|date=23 October 2020}}
* {{cite book|last=Witton|first=P.|year=2003|title=Indonesia|publisher=Lonely Planet|location=Melbourne|isbn=978-1-74059-154-6}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Library resources box}}
* [https://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=ID Key Development Forecasts for Indonesia] from [[International Futures]]

=== Government ===
* [https://indonesia.go.id/?lang=2 Government] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250512111450/https://indonesia.go.id/?lang=2|date=12 May 2025}} – Official website of the Government of Indonesia
* [https://www.presidenri.go.id Presidency] – official website of the president of Indonesia
* [https://www.wapresri.go.id Vice President] – official website of the vice president of Indonesia
* [http://mpr.go.id People's Consultative Assembly]&nbsp;– official website of People's Consultative Assembly of the Republic of Indobesia
* [http://www.dpd.go.id Regional Representative Council] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161203091543/http://www.dpd.go.id/|date=3 December 2016}} – official website of Indonesia Regional Representative Council
* [http://www.dpr.go.id House of Representatives] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120204074445/http://www.dpr.go.id/|date=4 February 2012}} – official website of Indonesia House of Representatives
* [https://www.mahkamahagung.go.id/en Supreme Court] – official website of the Supreme Court of Indonesia
* [https://en.mkri.id Constitutional Court] – official website of the Constitutional Court of Indonesia
* [https://bps.go.id Statistics] – official website of Statistics Indonesia

=== History ===
* [https://repositori.kemdikbud.go.id/23704/1/HISTORY%20OF%20INDONESIA%20A%20RESOURCE%20BOOK.pdf "History"] – Indonesian history at Repositori Institusi

=== Tourism ===
* [https://indonesia.travel/gb/en Wonderful Indonesia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250427153858/https://indonesia.travel/gb/en/|date=27 April 2025}} – Indonesia's official tourism portal

=== Maps ===
* {{Wikiatlas}}
* {{Osmrelation-inline|304751}}

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