Editing Anti-cult movement

{{Short description|none}}
{{Redirect-distinguish|Countercult|Counterculture}}
{{Redirect|Anticult|the album|Anticult (album)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2023}}
{{Use American English|date=May 2025}}
{{Status of religious freedom |persecution}}

The '''anti-cult movement''', abbreviated '''ACM''' and also known as the '''countercult movement''',<ref>Philip Johnson et al. "Religious and Non-Religious Spirituality in the Western World ('New Age')." In ''A New Vision, a New Heart, a Renewed Call'', edited by David Clayton et al. Lausanne Occasional Paper. [[Lausanne Committee for World Evangelization]]. Vol. 2. [[Pasadena, California|Pasadena, CA]]: [[William Carey Library]], 2005. 177.</ref> consists of various governmental and non-governmental organizations and individuals that seek to raise awareness of religious groups that they consider to be "[[cult]]s", uncover coercive practices used to attract and retain members, and help those who have become involved with harmful cult practices.

One prominent group within the anti-cult movement, [[Christian countercult movement|Christian counter-cult organizations]], oppose [[new religious movement]]s (NRMs) on [[theological]] grounds, categorizing them as ''cults'', and distribute information to this effect through church networks and via printed literature.<ref>Anson Shupe and David G. Bromley. "Anti-Cult Movement." In ''Encyclopedia of Religion and Society'', edited by William H. Swatos, 27–28. [[Walnut Creek, California|Walnut Creek, CA]]: [[AltaMira Press]], 1998.</ref>

== Concept ==
The anti-cult movement is conceptualized as a collection of individuals and groups, whether formally organized or not, who oppose some "new religious movements" (or "[[cult]]s"). This [[countermovement]] has reportedly recruited participants from family members of "cultists," former group members (or [[apostates]]), religious groups (including [[Judaism|Jewish]] and Christian groups)<ref>Shoshanah Feher. "Maintaining the Faith: The Jewish Anti-Cult and Counter-Missionary Movement." In ''Anti-Cult Movements in Cross-Cultural Perspective'', edited by Shupe and Bromley, 33–48. New York: Garland, 1994.</ref> and associations of health professionals.<ref>[[Anson D. Shupe|Anson Shupe]] and [[David G. Bromley]]. "The Modern Anti-Cult Movement in North America." In ''Anti-Cult Movements in Cross-Cultural Perspective'', edited by Shupe and Bromley, 3–31. New York: Garland, 1994. p. 3.</ref><ref>[[Eileen Barker]]. "The Scientific Study of Religion? You Must Be Joking!" ''[[Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion]]'' 34, no. 3 (1995): 287–310, p. 297.</ref> Although there is a trend towards globalization,<ref>Shupe, Anson and David G. Bromley. 1994. "Introduction," pp. vii–xi in Anson Shupe and David G. Bromley, eds., ''Anti-Cult Movements in Cross-Cultural Perspective'', New York, NY: Garland, p. x.</ref> the social and organizational bases vary significantly from country to country according to the social and political [[opportunity structure]]s in each place.<ref>{{Cite book |first1=James T |last1=Richardson |author1-link=James T. Richardson |first2=Barend |last2=van Driel |title=Anti-Cult Movements in Cross-Cultural Perspective |chapter=New Religious Movements in Europe: Developments and Reactions (Shupe and Bromley) |pages=129–170,137ff |year=1994 |publisher=Garland |isbn=0815314280}}</ref>

As with many subjects in the [[social science]]s, the movement is variously defined. A significant minority opinion suggests that analysis should treat the secular anti-cult movement separately from the religiously motivated (mainly [[Christians|Christian]]) groups.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cowan|first=Douglas E.|date=2002|title=Exits and Migrations: Foregrounding the Christian Counter-Cult|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/1353790022000008271|journal=[[Journal of Contemporary Religion]]|volume=17|issue=3|pages=339–354 |doi=10.1080/1353790022000008271 |s2cid=145477103 |issn=1353-7903|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230627194340/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/epdf/10.1080/1353790022000008271|archive-date=27 June 2023|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20060827231058/http://religiousmovements.lib.virginia.edu/cultsect/anticounter.htm "Cult Group Controversies: Conceptualizing 'Anti-Cult' and 'Counter-Cult."] The Religious Movements Page. Religious Movements Page. Last Modified 26 November 2000. [https://web.archive.org/web/20060827231058/http://religiousmovements.lib.virginia.edu/cultsect/anticounter.htm Archived] 27 August 2006 at the [[Wayback Machine]].</ref>

The anti-cult movement might be divided into four classes:

# secular counter-cult groups;
# Christian [[Evangelicalism|evangelical]] counter-cult groups;
# groups formed to counter a specific cult; and
# organizations that offer some form of [[exit counseling]].<ref name=":0">George D. Chryssides. ''Exploring New Religions.'' London and New York: Cassell, 1999. 349–351.</ref>

Most if not all of the groups involved express the view that there are potentially deleterious effects associated with some new religious movements.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Possamaï|first1=Adam|last2=Lee|first2=Murray|date=2004|title=New religious movements and the fear of crime|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/1353790042000266354|journal=[[Journal of Contemporary Religion]]|volume=19|issue=3|pages=337–352|doi=10.1080/1353790042000266354|s2cid=144906772 |issn=1353-7903|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220618132646/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/1353790042000266354|archive-date=18 June 2022|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
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=== Religious and secular critics ===

Commentators differentiate two main types of opposition to "cults":
* religious opposition: related to [[theology|theological]] issues.
* secular opposition: related to emotional, social, financial, and economic consequences of cult involvement, where "cult" can refer to a religious or to a secular group.

=== Hadden's taxonomy of the anti-cult movement ===

[[Jeffrey K. Hadden]] sees four distinct classes of opposition to "cults":<ref>[[Jeffrey K. Hadden]]. "SOC 257: New Religious Movements Lectures: The Anti-Cult Movement." Course Lecture. University of Virginia, Department of Sociology. 1997.</ref>
# '''Opposition grounded on religion'''
#* Opposition usually defined in theological terms.
#* Cults considered heretical.
#* Endeavors to expose the heresy and correct the beliefs of those who have strayed from a truth.
#* Prefers [[metaphor]]s of deception rather than possession.
#* Serves two important functions:
#** protects members (especially youth) from heresy, and
#** increases solidarity among the faithful.
# '''Secular opposition'''
#* Regards individual autonomy as the manifest goal – achieved by getting people out of groups that use [[Brainwashing|mind control]] and deceptive proselytization.
#* Regards the struggle as an issue of control rather than theology.
#* Organizes around families of children currently or previously involved in a cult.
#* Has the unannounced goal of disabling or destroying new religious movements organizationally.
# '''Apostates'''
#* Former members who consider themselves egregiously wronged by a cult, often with the coordination and encouragement of anti-cult groups.
# '''Entrepreneurial opposition'''
#* A few "[[entrepreneur]]s" who have made careers of organizing opposition groups.
#* Broadcasters, journalists, and lawyers who base a reputation or career on anti-cult activities.

== Cult-watching groups and individuals, and other opposition to cults ==

=== Family-members of adherents ===

Some opposition to cults (and to some NRMs) started with family-members of cult-adherents who had problems with the sudden changes in character, lifestyle and future plans of their young adult children who had joined NRMs. [[Ted Patrick]], widely known as "the father of [[deprogramming]]," exemplifies members of this group. The former [[Cult Awareness Network]] (old CAN) grew out of a [[grassroots]]-movement by parents of cult-members.<ref name=":1">J. Gordon Melton. "Anti-cultists in the United States: An Historical Perspective." In ''New Religious Movements: Changes and Responses'', edited by Jamie Cresswell and Bryan Wilson, 213–233. London and New York: Routledge, 1999. 216.</ref> The [[American Family Foundation]] ({{As of|2007|alt= today}} the [[International Cultic Studies Association]]) originated from a father whose daughter had joined a high-control group, and other parents concerned about young adult offspring populated the American Family Foundation's membership.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Langone |first1=Michael D. |title=1979–2019: The Changing Population of ICSA |journal=ICSA Today |date=2019 |volume=10 |issue=1 |url=https://www.icsahome.com/articles/1979-2019-the-changing-population-of-icsa |publisher=[[International Cultic Studies Association]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307165540/https://www.icsahome.com/articles/1979-2019-the-changing-population-of-icsa|archive-date=7 March 2023|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Clinical psychologists and psychiatrists ===

From the 1970s onwards some psychiatrists and clinical psychologists accused "cults" of harming some of their members.<ref>Louis J. West and Margaret Thaler Singer. "Cults, Quacks, and Nonprofessional Therapies." In ''Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry/III'', edited by Harold I. Kaplan, Alfred M. Freedman, and Benjamin J. Sadock, 3245–3358. 3rd ed. Vol. 3. London and Baltimore, MD: William & Wilkins, 1980.</ref><ref>David A. Halperin. "Psychiatric Perspectives on Cult Affiliation." ''Psychiatric Annals'' 20 (1990): 204–218.</ref> These accusations were sometimes based on observations made during therapy, and sometimes were related to theories regarding brainwashing or mind control.<ref>Thomas Robbins and Dick Anthony. "Cults, Brainwashing, and Counter-Subversion." ''Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science'' 446 (1979): 78–90.</ref>

=== Former members ===
{{See also|Apostasy#Other religious movements|l1=Apostasy in alleged cults and new religious movements}}

[[Anson Shupe]], [[David G. Bromley]] and Joseph Ventimiglia coined the term ''atrocity tales'' in 1979,<ref name=":3">Bromley, David G., Shupe, Anson D., Ventimiglia, J. C. [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1460-2466.1979.tb01710.x "Atrocity Tales, the Unification Church, and the Social Construction of Evil."] ''Journal of Communication'' 29, no. 3 (1979): 42–53.</ref> which [[Bryan R. Wilson]] later took up in relation to former members' narratives. Bromley and Shupe defined an "atrocity tale" as the symbolic presentation of action or events, real or imagined, in such a context that they come to flagrantly violate the (presumably) shared premises upon which a given set of social relationships should take place. The recounting of such tales has the intention of reaffirming normative boundaries. By sharing the reporter's disapproval or horror, an audience reasserts normative prescription and clearly locates the violator beyond the limits of [[public morality]].<ref>Jean Duhaime. "Les Témoigagnes de Convertis et d'ex-Adeptes." (English: "The testimonies of converts and former followers") In ''New Religions in a Postmodern World'', edited by [[Mikael Rothstein]] and [[Reender Kranenborg]]. ''RENNER Studies in New Religions''. Aarhus, Denmark: [[Aarhus University]] Press, 2003. {{ISBN|8772887486}}.</ref><ref>Anson D. Shupe and David G. Bromley. "Apostates and Atrocity Stories: Some Parameters in the Dynamics of [[Deprogramming]]." In ''The Social Impact of New Religious Movements'', edited by [[Bryan R. Wilson]], 179–215. [[Barrytown, New York|Barrytown, NY]]: Rose of Sharon Press, 1981.</ref>

=== Christian countercult movement ===
{{Main|Christian countercult movement}}
In the 1940s, the long-held opposition by some established Christian denominations to non-Christian religions or supposedly [[heresy|heretical]], or counterfeit, Christian sects crystallized into a more organized [[Christian countercult movement|Christian counter cult movement]] in the United States. For those belonging to the movement, all religious groups claiming to be Christian, but deemed outside of Christian [[orthodoxy]], were considered "cults."<ref>Douglas E. Cowan, ''Bearing False Witness?: An Introduction to the Christian Countercult''. London and Westport, CT: Praeger, 2003.</ref> Christian cults are new religious movements which have a Christian background but are considered to be [[Theology|theologically]] deviant by members of other Christian churches.<ref>[[J. Gordon Melton]]. ''Encyclopedic Handbook of Cults in America.'' Rev. ed. New York and London: Garland, 1992. 5.</ref> In his influential book ''[[The Kingdom of the Cults]]'', first published in the United States in 1965, Christian scholar [[Walter Ralston Martin|Walter Martin]] defines Christian cults as groups that follow the personal interpretation of an individual, rather than the understanding of the [[Bible]] accepted by [[mainstream Christianity]]. He mentions [[the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]], [[Christian Science]], the [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], [[Unitarian Universalism]], and [[Unity Church|Unity]] as examples.<ref>[[Walter Ralston Martin]]. ''[[The Kingdom of the Cults]].'' Bloomington, MN: [[Bethany House]], 2003. 18. {{ISBN|0764228218}}.</ref>

The Christian countercult movement asserts that Christian sects whose beliefs are partially or wholly not in accordance with the [[Bible]] are erroneous. It also states that a religious sect can be considered a "cult" if its beliefs involve a denial of what they view as any of the essential [[Christianity|Christian]] teachings such as [[salvation]], the [[Trinity]], [[Jesus]] himself as a person, the [[ministry of Jesus]], the [[Miracles of Jesus]], the [[Crucifixion of Jesus]], the [[Death of Christ]], the [[Resurrection of Christ]], the [[Second Coming of Christ]], and the [[Rapture]].<ref>Walter R. Martin, ''The Rise of the Cults'', rev. ed. [[Santa Ana, California|Santa Ana, CA]]: Vision House, 1978. 11–12.</ref><ref>[[Richard Abanes]]. ''[[Apologetics|Defending the Faith]]: A Beginner's Guide to Cults and New Religions.'' [[Grand Rapids, Michigan|Grand Rapids, MI]]: [[Baker Publishing Group|Baker Book House]], 1997. 33.</ref><ref>H. Wayne House and Gordon Carle. ''Doctrine Twisting: How Core Biblical Truths are Distorted.'' [[Downers Grove, Illinois|Downers Grove, IL]]: IVP, 2003.</ref>

Countercult literature usually expresses doctrinal or theological concerns and a [[missionary]] or [[apologetics|apologetic]] purpose.<ref>Garry W. Trompf. "[[Missiology]], Methodology and the Study of New Religious Movements," ''Religious Traditions'' 10 (1987): 95–106.</ref> It presents a rebuttal by emphasizing the teachings of the [[Bible]] against the beliefs of non-fundamental Christian sects. Christian countercult activist writers also emphasize the need for Christians to [[evangelism|evangelize]] to followers of cults.<ref>Walter R. Martin. ''The Kingdom of the Cults.'' rev. ed. Edited by [[Ravi Zacharias]]. Bloomington, MN: Bethany House, 2003. 479–493.</ref><ref>[[Ronald Enroth]], ed. ''Evangelising the Cults'', [[Milton Keynes urban area|Milton Keynes, UK]]: Word, 1990.</ref><ref>[[Norman Geisler|Norman L. Geisler]] and Ron Rhodes, ''When Cultists Ask: A Popular Handbook on Cultic Misinterpretations.'' Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1997.</ref>

===Governmental opposition===
{{Further|Governmental lists of cults and sects}}

The secular opposition to cults and new religious movements operates internationally, though a number of sizable and sometimes expanding groups originated in the United States. Some European countries, such as France, Germany, Belgium and Switzerland have introduced legislation or taken other measures against cults or "cultic deviations."

In the Netherlands "[[cult]]s," [[sect]]s, and [[new religious movement]]s have the same legal rights as larger and more mainstream religious movements.<ref>Richard Singelenberg. "Foredoomed to Failure: the Anti-Cult Movement in the Netherlands". In ''Regulating Religion: Case Studies From Around the Globe'', edited by James T. Richardson. Critical Issues in Social Justice. New York: Springer, 2004. 214–15.</ref> As of 2004, the Netherlands do not have an anti-cult movement of any significance.<ref>Singelenberg, 213.</ref>

== National or regional anti-cult movements ==

===United States===
The first organized opposition to new religions in the United States appeared in 1971 with the formation of FREECOG (Parents Committee to Free Our Sons and Daughters from the [[The Family International|Children of God]]).<ref>{{Cite news|last1=Wooten |first1=James T. |title=Ill Winds Buffet Communal Sect |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1971/11/29/archives/ill-winds-buffet-communal-sect-ill-winds-buffet-a-communal-sect-of.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=29 November 1971 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230627200506/https://www.nytimes.com/1971/11/29/archives/ill-winds-buffet-communal-sect-ill-winds-buffet-a-communal-sect-of.html |archive-date=27 June 2023 |page=41|issn=0362-4331|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Chryssides, ''Exploring New Religions'', 346–347.</ref> In 1973, FREECOG renamed itself as the Volunteer Parents of America, and then the [[Citizens' Freedom Foundation|Citizens Freedom Foundation]] (CFF), before becoming the [[Cult Awareness Network]] (CAN) in 1984.<ref name=":1" /> In 1979, another anti-cult group, the [[American Family Foundation]] (AFF) was founded (which is now the [[International Cultic Studies Association]]); it began organizing annual conferences, launched an information phone-line, and published the ''[[Cult Observer]]'' and the ''[[Cultic Studies Journal]]''.<ref name=":2" /> In 1996, CAN was sued for its involvement in the deprogramming of a member of the [[United Pentecostal Church International]] named [[Jason Scott case|Jason Scott]].<ref>Melton, "Anti-Cultists in the United States," 228.</ref> Other parties joined the lawsuit, and this [[Bankruptcy|bankrupted]] the organization. A group which included a number of [[Scientologists]] purchased the "Cult Awareness Network" name and formed the "[[New Cult Awareness Network]]."<ref>{{Cite news |last=Knapp |first=Dan |date=December 19, 1996 |title=Group that once criticized Scientologists now owned by one |url=http://www.cnn.com/US/9612/19/scientology/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061223084700/http://cnn.com/US/9612/19/scientology |archive-date=2006-12-23 |access-date=2023-01-02 |work=[[CNN]]}}</ref> In the 1970s and 1980s American anti-cultist and [[Deprogramming|deprogrammer]] [[Ted Patrick]] was charged at least thirteen times and convicted at least three times for [[kidnapping]] and [[unlawful imprisonment]] for his deprogramming activities.<ref>Howard O. Hunter and Polly J. Price. [https://digitalcommons.law.byu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2069&context=lawreview "Regulation of Religious Proselytism in the United States."] (PDF) ''Brigham Young University Law Review'' no. 2 (2001): 546.</ref><ref name="nyt-08301980">{{Cite news |date=August 30, 1980 |title=Ted Patrick Convicted of Seizing Woman Said to Have Joined Cult; Escaped From Abductors |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1980/08/30/archives/ted-patrick-convicted-of-seizing-woman-said-to-have-joined-cult.html}}</ref> In 1980, Patrick was convicted of "[[conspiracy]], [[false imprisonment]] and [[kidnapping]]" of Roberta McElfish, a waitress in [[Tucson, Arizona]], after accepting [[United States dollar|US$]]7,500 from her family to deprogram her.<ref name="nyt-08301980" />

=== Europe ===
In the [[European Union]], the [[European Federation of Centres of Research and Information on Sectarianism|FECRIS]] ({{Lang|fr|Fédération Européenne des Centres de Recherche et d'Information sur le Sectarisme, English: European Federation of Centres of Research and Information on Sectarianism}}) organization has been active since 1994 as an [[Umbrella organization|umbrella]] for European organizations investigating the activities of groups labeled to be cults or sects.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.hrwf.net/images/reports/2012/2012fecrisbook.pdf |title=Freedom of Religion or Belief, Anti-Sect Movements and State Neutrality, A Case Study: FECRIS |publisher=Religion – Staat – Gesellschaft, Journal for the Study of Beliefs and Worldviews |year=2012 |isbn=978-3-643-99894-1 |editor-last=Besier |editor-first=Gerhard |publication-place=Berlin |pages=183–189 |language=en |issn=1438-955X |editor-last2=Seiwert |editor-first2=Hubert |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200528205709/http://www.hrwf.net/images/reports/2012/2012fecrisbook.pdf |archive-date=2020-05-28}}</ref>

The European Coordination for Freedom of Conscience, a participating organization in the EU Fundamental Rights Platform, issued a report on FECRIS in 2014, describing the differences between how the organization describes itself and what its key figures actually do and say. It summarized that "activities of FECRIS constitute a contravention of the principles of respect and tolerance of beliefs... [and] is in direct opposition to the principles of the [[European Convention on Human Rights]] and other international human rights instruments."<ref>{{Cite web |date=2014-09-17 |title=Question about a European "NGO" FECRIS {{!}} CAP Freedom of Conscience |url=https://freedomofconscience.eu/2014-04-question-about-the-fecris/ |access-date=2023-04-10 |publisher=European Coordination of Associations and Individuals for Freedom of Conscience |language=en-US}}</ref>

==== France ====
{{See also|About–Picard law|MIVILUDES|Centre contre les manipulations mentales|Parliamentary Commission on Cults in France}}

Anti-cult organizations in France have included the [[Centre Roger Ikor]] (1981–) and MILS ([[Mission interministérielle de lutte contre les sectes]]; English: "Interministerial Mission in the Fight Against [[Cult]]s"), operational from 7 October 1998. [[MIVILUDES]], established in 2002, subsumed some of their operations. MIVILUDES has been criticized for the broad scope of its list of cults, which included both non-religious organizations and criteria for inclusion which [[Bishop]] [[Jean Vernette]], the national secretary of the French episcopate to the study of cults and [[new religious movement]]s, said could be applied to almost all religions.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Williams |first=Elizabeth |date=2020-05-04 |title=An In-depth Look at the Negative Impact of the French Anti-Cult Movement |url=https://curiousmindmagazine.com/an-indepth-look-at-the-negative-impact-of-the-french-anti-cult-movement/ |access-date=2022-08-14 |magazine=Curious Mind Magazine |language=en-US}}</ref> MIVILUDES officials are under the French [[Minister of the Interior (France)|Ministry of the Interior]] as of January 2020.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kheniche |first=Ouafia |date=2019-10-01 |title=Lutte contre les sectes : la Miviludes va disparaître |url=https://www.radiofrance.fr/franceinter/exclusif-lutte-contre-les-sectes-la-miviludes-va-disparaitre-2513982 |access-date=2022-08-14 |work=France Inter |language=fr}}</ref> The [[About-Picard law]] against sects and cultic influence that "undermine [[human rights]] and [[fundamental freedoms]]" as well as [[mental manipulation]] was established in 2001.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Hensley |first=Jon |date=2000-06-22 |title=Church attacks new French anti-cult law |url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2000/jun/23/jonhenley |access-date=2022-08-12 |work=[[The Guardian]] |language=en-GB}}</ref>

==== United Kingdom ====
{{See also|The Family Survival Trust|Cult Information Centre|Reachout Trust}}
In the UK, [[Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)|MP]] [[Paul Rose (British politician)|Paul Rose]] established the first major British anti-cult group called [[The Family Survival Trust|FAIR]] (Family Action Information and Rescue/Resource) in 1976.<ref name=":4" /> In 1987, [[Ian Haworth]] founded the [[Cult Information Centre]].<ref>Elisabeth Arweck. "Anti-Cult Movement: FAIR, Cult Information Centre (CIC)." In ''Encyclopedia of New Religious Movements'', edited by [[Peter B. Clarke]], 35–37. London and New York: Routledge, 2006. 37.</ref> Other groups like [[Deo Gloria Trust]], [[Reachout Trust]], [[Graham Baldwin|Catalyst]], [[People's Organised Workshop on Ersatz Religion]], and [[Cultists Anonymous]] also grew during the 1970s and 1980s.<ref>[[The Family Survival Trust|Casey McCann]]. "The British Anti-Cult Movement... A View From Within." ''[[Journal of Contemporary Religion]]'' 3, no. 2 (1986): 6–8.</ref><ref name=":4">George D. Chryssides. "Britain's Anti-cult movement." In ''New Religious Movements: Changes and Responses'', edited by Jamie Cresswell and Bryan Wilson, 257–273. London and New York: Routledge, 1999.</ref><ref name=":0" />

In 1968, after a large movement from the public to investigate Scientology's effects on the health and well-being of its adherents, [[Minister of Health (United Kingdom)|Minister of Health]] [[Kenneth Robinson (British politician)|Kenneth Robinson]] implemented measures to prevent the immigration of foreign and [[British Commonwealth|Commonwealth]] Scientologists into the United Kingdom.<ref>John A. Robilliard. ''Religion and the Law: Religious Liberty in Modern English Law.'' Manchester and Dover, NH: Manchester University Press, 1984. 106–109.</ref><ref>Richardson and van Driel, "New Religious Movements in Europe," 154.</ref> One measure was the automatic denial of [[student visa]] applications for foreign nationals seeking to study at Hubbard College at [[East Grinstead]] or any other Scientological educational institution. Additionally, [[work permit]]s to foreign nationals seeking employment in Scientology establishments were restricted.<ref>Eileen Barker, "The British Right to Discriminate," ''[[Society (journal)|Society]]'' 21, no. 4 (1984): 35–41 [38–39].</ref><ref>Richardson and Van Driel, "New Religious Movements in Europe: Developments and Reactions," 154.</ref> These measures were lifted in 1980 after a [[Foster Report|1971 investigation]] headed by [[John Foster (MP for Northwich)|John G. Foster]] believed that the "Scientology ban" was unfair.<ref>{{Cite report |url=https://ia803209.us.archive.org/1/items/FosterReportEnquiryIntoThePracticeAndEffectsOfScientology/Foster%20Report%20-%20Enquiry%20into%20the%20Practice%20and%20Effects%20of%20Scientology.pdf |first=John |last=Foster |author-link=John Foster (MP for Northwich) | title = Enquiry into the Practice and Effects of Scientology | publisher = [[Her Majesty's Stationery Office]], London | date = December 1971}} UK National Archive piece reference [http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/catalogue/displaycataloguedetails.asp?CATID=8070954&CATLN=6&accessmethod=5&j=1 MH 153/606]. ([https://www.cs.cmu.edu/~dst/Cowen/audit/fosthome.html alternative html version])</ref> Despite this investigation, the [[European Court of Justice]] ruled that the United Kingdom was entitled to refuse the right of entry to nationals of [[European Union]] [[member state]]s seeking employment in Scientology establishments.<ref name=":9">Barker, "British Right to Discriminate," 39.</ref> Sociologist [[Eileen Barker]] believes that three reasons led to the lifting of the "ban": (1) it was unenforceable, (2) it was hard to defend before the [[European Court of Human Rights]], and (3) it was unfair since it was the only new religious movement that received such treatment.<ref name=":9" /> In 1999, the Church of Scientology attempted to obtain charitable status through the [[Charity Commission for England and Wales|Charity Commission of England and Wales]], but their application was rejected and the Church did not appeal the decision.<ref name=":5">Johnathan Benthall. "Scientology's Winning Streak." ''Anthropology Weekly'' 30, no. 1 (2014): 3–4.</ref> In 2013, the [[Supreme Court of the United Kingdom|UK Supreme Court]] ruled that the [[Scientology in the United Kingdom|Scientology chapel in London]] was a "place of meeting for religious worship" that could be registered as a place of marriage to the [[General Register Office|Registrar General of Births, Deaths and Marriages]].<ref name=":5" />

==== Austria ====
In Austria, the anti-cult movement is represented by GSK ({{Lang|de|Gesellschaft gegen Sekten und Kultgefahren}}), renamed in 1992 from the Association for Mental Health ({{Lang|de|Verein zur Wahrung der geistigen Freiheit}}), founded by psychologist Brigitte Rollett on September 29, 1977, engaged in an information campaign against religious minorities and new religious movements.<ref name=":03">{{Cite web |date=2016-11-27 |title=AUSTRIA: GSK: Is the FECRIS-branch of Austria becoming a shadow of itself? |work=Human Rights Without Frontiers |url=http://hrwf.eu/austria-gsk-is-the-fecris-branch-of-austria-becoming-a-shadow-of-itself/ |access-date=2023-04-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161127221729/http://hrwf.eu/austria-gsk-is-the-fecris-branch-of-austria-becoming-a-shadow-of-itself/ |archive-date=27 November 2016}}</ref> GSK is a declared member of FECRIS.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web |date=2015-08-15 |title=Members |website=FECRIS |url=http://www.fecris.org/members/ |access-date=2023-04-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150815230029/http://www.fecris.org/members/ |archive-date=15 August 2015}}</ref> Between 1992 and 2008, GSK was funded by the state government of the city of Vienna.<ref name=":03" /> According to the HRWF report, further financing from the funds of the state government of Lower Austria is non-transparent.<ref name=":03" />

==== Czech Republic ====
The Society for the Study of Sects and New Religious Direction ({{Lang|cs|Společnost pro studium sekt a nových náboženských směrů}}), which is considered by religionists to be an anti-cult movement, has been operating in the [[Czech Republic]] since 1993.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2009-08-03 |title=NOVÁ NÁBOŽENSKÁ HNUTÍ |url=http://www.oleweb.net/nnh/hnuti.htm |access-date=2023-04-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090803003332/http://www.oleweb.net/nnh/hnuti.htm |archive-date=3 August 2009}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Nová náboženská hnutí (stručný úvod) [nová náboženská hnutí, sekty, nová religiozita] |url=http://www.david-zbiral.cz/NNHuvod.htm#_Toc151661446 |access-date=2023-04-09 |website=www.david-zbiral.cz}}</ref>

==== Finland ====
In Finland from 1993 operates organisation U.U.T. ({{Lang|fi|Uskontojen uhrien tuki}}), Support Group for the Victims of Religions, which is a FECRIS member.<ref name=":10" />

=== Australia ===
Australia's anti-cult movement began in the 1970s with the introduction of NRMs like [[Scientology]] and the [[Unification Church]]. Deprogrammings occurred throughout the 1970s and 1980s that resulted in numerous lawsuits resulting in a national transition away from deprogramming and toward [[exit counseling]].<ref>Dominiek Coates, "The Significance and Purpose of the 'Anti-Cult Movement' in Facilitating Disaffiliation From a New Religious Movement: Resources for Self-construction or a Justificatory Account," ''International Journal for the Study of New Religions'' 3, no. 2 (2012): 213–244. p. 219.</ref> In 2010, [[Independent politician|independent]] Senator [[Nick Xenophon]] attempted to enact legislation against NRMs – though primarily against the [[Church of Scientology]] and their [[Tax exemption|tax-exempt]] status – similar to those in France. However, his efforts were unsuccessful.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Xenophon won't give up on Scientologists |url=https://www.sbs.com.au/news/article/xenophon-wont-give-up-on-scientologists/56q23tp9c |access-date=2022-07-26 |work=SBS News |language=en}}</ref>

Australia's main anti-cult organization is Cult Information and Family Support (CIFS), run by [[Exit-counselor|exit counselor]] Tore Klevjer.<ref>Sherryn Groch, "Why do smart people join cults? And how do they get out of them?," ''The Age'' (Melbourne), 17 July 2022.</ref> It was founded by Ros Hodgkins, David Richardson, and nineteen others in 1996.<ref>Dayle Latham, "Cult followers need help to escape: supporter," ''[[Illawarra Mercury]]'' ([[Wollongong|Wollongong, New South Wales]]), 17 November 2014.</ref><ref>Julie Huffer, "More tell of Sahaja yoga experiences," ''Hornsby Advocate'', 9 April 1997.</ref><ref name=":02">Interview with Ann Wason Moore, "Fear creates a recipe for exploitation," ''[[Gold Coast Bulletin|The Gold Coast Bulletin]]'' ([[Southport, Queensland]]), 6 June 2020.</ref> CIFS combats NRMs as well as [[lifestyle coach]]es and [[Multi-level marketing|multi-level marketing schemes]];<ref name=":02" /> ''[[The Advertiser (Adelaide)|The Advertiser]]'' wrote in 2017 that it also represents ex-NRM members.<ref>Kay Dibben, "Senator takes aim at cult coercion," ''[[The Advertiser (Adelaide)|The Advertiser]]'' ([[Adelaide]]), 5 February 2017.</ref> Other groups like Cult Counselling Australia (formed in 1991<ref>{{Cite web |title=About Us |url=https://cultconsulting.org/about-us |access-date=2022-07-26 |website=cultconsulting.org |language=en}}</ref>) exist in Australia to provide exit counseling and educational services.

=== Russia ===
{{See also|Center for Religious Studies in the name of Hieromartyr Irenaeus of Lyons|Alexander Dvorkin}}
In [[Russia]] anti-cultism appeared in the early 1990s since the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]] and the [[1991 August Coup]]. Some Russian [[Protestantism|Protestants]] criticized foreign missionaries, sects, and new religious movements. They hoped that taking part in anti-cult declarations could demonstrate that they were not "sectarians."<ref name="ReferenceA">{{Cite journal|last1=Shterin|first1=Marat S.|last2=Richardson|first2=James T.|date=2000|title=Effects of the Western Anti-Cult Movement on Development of Laws Concerning Religion in Post-Communist Russia|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23921284|journal=Journal of Church and State|volume=42|issue=2|pages=247–271|doi=10.1093/jcs/42.2.247 |jstor=23921284 |issn=0021-969X|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Some scholars have shown that anti-cult movements, especially with support of the government, can provoke serious religious conflicts in Russian society.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Сергей Иваненко. О РЕЛИГИОВЕДЧЕСКИЕХ АСПЕКТАХ ИЗУЧЕНИЯ "АНТИКУЛЬТОВОГО ДВИЖЕНИЯ". А также о его воздействии на государственно-конфессиональные отношения в современной России |language=ru |trans-title=On Religional Aspects of Studying "Anticultural Traffic" and also about its impact on state-confessional relations in modern Russia |url=http://www.sclj.ru/news/detail.php?SECTION_ID=214&ELEMENT_ID=2546|access-date=2023-01-02|website=[[American Center for Law & Justice#Europe|Slavic Center for Law & Justice]] |first=Sergey |last=Ivanenko |date=August 17, 2009}}</ref> In 2008 the [[Ministry of Internal Affairs (Russia)|Russian Ministry of Internal Affairs]] prepared a list of "extremist groups." At the top of the list were [[Islam]]ic groups outside of "traditional Islam" (which is supervised by the Russian government); next were "[[Modern paganism|Pagan cults]]."<ref>Andreĭ Soldatov and I. Borogan. ''The New Nobility: The Restoration of Russia's Security State and The Enduring Legacy of the KGB.'' New York: PublicAffairs, 2010. 65–66.</ref> In 2009 the [[Ministry of Justice (Russia)|Russian Ministry of Justice]] set up a council called the Council of Experts Conducting State Religious Studies Expert Analysis. The new council listed 80 large sects which it considered potentially dangerous to Russian society and mentioned that there were thousands of smaller ones.<ref name="ReferenceA" /> Large sects listed included [[the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]], [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], and what were called "[[Neo-charismatic movement|neo-Pentecostals]]."<ref>Paul Marshall, Lela Gilbert and Nina Shea. ''Persecuted: The Global Assault on Christians.'' Ebook version. Thomas Nelson Inc., 2013.</ref>

=== China ===
{{Main|Persecution of Falun Gong|Antireligious campaigns in China|Heterodox teachings (Chinese law)}}

China's modern anti-cult movement began in the late 1990s with the development of [[qigong]] groups, primarily [[Falun Gong]]. Anti-cult campaigns in the late twentieth century and early twenty-first centuries were founded on "scientific rationality and civilization," according to [[Medical anthropology|medical anthropologist]] Nancy N. Chen.<ref>{{Cite journal | first = Nancy N. | last = Chen | title = ''Healing Sects and Anti-Cult Campaigns'' | journal = [[The China Quarterly]] | issue = 174 | year = 2003 | page = 508 | jstor = 20059006}}</ref> Chinese authorities claimed that by July 2001 that Falun Gong specifically was responsible for over 1,600 deaths through induced [[suicide]] by [[hanging]], [[self-immolation]], [[drowning]]s, among others and the [[murder]]s of practitioners' relatives.<ref>Calum Macleod, "City Life: Beijing – China bars the masses from its biggest ever anti-cult exhibition," ''[[The Independent]]'' (London), 18 July 2001.</ref> Chinese authorities adopted the negative term [[Heterodox teachings (Chinese law)|"xié jiào"]] ([[:zh:邪教|邪教]]) to refer to new religious movements. It is roughly translated by "evil cult," but the term dates as far back as the seventh century CE with various meanings.<ref>For more on use of the term "evil cult", see Maria Hsia Chang, ''Falun Gong: The End of Days'' (New Haven and London: [[Yale University Press]], 2004), 97–100.</ref>

About 10,000 Falun Gong protestors on 25 April 1999 demonstrated around [[Zhongnanhai]], the seat of the [[Chinese Communist Party]] and [[State Council of the People's Republic of China|State Council]], to recognize Falun Gong as a legitimate form of spirituality.<ref>Bryan Edelman and [[James T. Richardson]], "Imposed Limitations on Freedom of Religion in China and the Margin of Appreciation Doctrine: A Legal Analysis of the Crackdown on the Falun Gong and Other 'Evil Cults,'" ''[[Journal of Church and State]]'' 47, no. 2 (2005): 243–267. p. 243.</ref> In response, Beijing specifically labeled Falun Gong an illegal religious organization which violated the [[Constitution of the People's Republic of China|People's Republic of China's Constitution]] in May 1999.<ref>Edelman and Richardson, 251.</ref> On 22 July 1999, the [[Standing Committee of the National People's Congress]] specifically banned Falun Gong.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Ban of Falun Gong Is at People's Will |url=https://www.mfa.gov.cn/ce/ceus//eng/zt/ppflg/t36589.htm#:~:text=To%20maintain%20social%20stability%20and,to%20law,%20the%20spokesman%20said. |access-date=2022-07-10 |website=www.mfa.gov.cn}}</ref> On 30 October 1999, the Standing Committee enacted a law that required courts, police, and prosecutors to prosecute "cult" activity generally.<ref>"China issues anti-cult law to combat Falun Gong and other movements regime deems undesirable," ''International Law Update'' 5, no. 12 (1999).</ref>

=== Japan ===
{{See also|Unification Church|Aum Shinrikyo|National Network of Lawyers Against Spiritual Sales}}

A lawyer's organization called the [[National Network of Lawyers Against Spiritual Sales]] (NNLASS) was formed to combat the "spiritual sales" organized by the [[Unification Church]] and supposedly forced donations. According to NNLASS, the group received over 34,000 complaints about "spiritual sales" and forced donations by 2021 totaling to about 123.7 billion [[Japanese yen|yen]] ([[United States dollar|US$]]902 million).<ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-07-13 |title=Problems over money continue at Unification Church: lawyers |url=https://www.asahi.com/ajw/articles/14668795 |access-date=2022-07-15 |work=[[The Asahi Shimbun]] |language=en}}</ref> According to Yoshihide Sakurai, Japanese courts originally would require religious groups to return large donations if the person never joined the group, but once the person joined the group, their "spiritual sale" was made completely within their own [[free will]] and should not be returned. However, lawyers argued that if the person was forced to make a donation, then they were not making it out of their free will and thus their donation or sale should be returned.{{r|sakurai|page=33}} Based on a 2006 [[Tokyo District Court]] decision, the circumstances of whether or not the Unification Church used illegal recruiting or donation soliciting tactics were to be determined on a case-by-case basis, which was upheld by a 2007 appeal.{{r|sakurai|page=33–34}}

In 1995, [[Aum Shinrikyo]], a Japanese [[new religious movement]], attacked a [[Tokyo subway sarin attack|Tokyo subway with sarin gas]], killing 14 people and injuring about 1,000. After this incident, mainstream Japanese society faced their "cult problem" directly.{{r|sakurai|page=30}} Various anti-cult groups – many of them local – emerged from the publicity of the "Aum Affair." One of which is the Japan De-Culting Council (日本脱カルト研究会) on 11 November 1995.<ref>{{Cite journal |author=Watanabe Manabu |title=Reactions to the Aum Affair: The Rise of the 'Anti-Cult' Movement in Japan |url=https://nirc.nanzan-u.ac.jp/journal/3/issue/21/article/53|access-date=2023-01-02 |journal=Bulletin of the Nanzan Institute for Religion and Culture |volume=21 |year=1997 |pages=32–48}}</ref> It was founded by lawyers, psychologists, academics, and other interested parties like ex-[[New religious movement|NRM]] members.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Baffelli|first1=Erica|last2=Reader|first2=Ian|date=2012|title=Editors' Introduction: Impact and Ramifications: The Aftermath of the Aum Affair in the Japanese Religious Context|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41495887|journal=Japanese Journal of Religious Studies|volume=39|issue=1|pages=1–28|jstor=41495887 |issn=0304-1042}}</ref> It changed its name to the {{ill|Japan Society for Cult Prevention and Recovery|ja|日本脱カルト協会}} in April 2004.

In 1989, [[Tsutsumi Sakamoto]] was an anti-cult lawyer working on a civil case against Aum Shinrikyo. At approximately 3:00&nbsp;a.m. [[Japan Standard Time|JST]] ([[UTC+09:00|UTC+9:00]]), several members of Aum Shinrikyo entered Sakamoto's apartment in [[Yokohama]]. He, his wife, Satoko, and his 14-month-old son, Tatsuhiko, were all killed. In the aftermath of the Aum Affair in 1995, some Aum Shinrikyo members and one former member in September 1995 tipped off [[National Police Agency (Japan)|Japanese police]] about the general location of the bodies of the three victims, which were scattered to complicate search efforts.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Pollack |first=Andrew |date=1995-09-07 |title=Japanese Police Find Body of a Lawyer Believed Killed by Cult |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/09/07/world/japanese-police-find-body-of-a-lawyer-believed-killed-by-cult.html |access-date=2022-07-15 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

On 8 July 2022, [[Tetsuya Yamagami]] allegedly assassinated former Prime Minister of Japan [[Shinzo Abe]]. Upon his immediate arrest, Yamagami testified that he was driven by Abe's relationship with the Unification Church. Yamagami's mother made large donations to the Unification Church that bankrupted their family.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-07-15 |title=EXPLAINER: The Unification Church's ties to Japan's politics |url=https://apnews.com/article/shinzo-abe-japan-crime-tokyo-south-korea-4bac3b7b504b857bc4d2a8ff503b4b37 |access-date=2022-07-15 |work=[[Associated Press]] |language=en}}</ref> This incident brought renewed attention to the social issues related to cults in Japan, which include the questionable religious meddling in state politics, fraudulent fundraising in the name of religion, and the welfare of [[shūkyō nisei]] ([[religion and children|children of religious family]]).<ref>{{Citation |url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/podcast/unification-church-kishida/ |first1=Shaun|last1=McKenna|first2=Kanako|last2=Takahara |title=Deep Dive Episode 139: The Church, the State and Kishida's headache |work=[[The Japan Times]] |date=7 December 2022 |access-date=21 January 2023}}</ref>

== Controversies ==

=== Polarized views among scholars ===

Social scientists, sociologists, religious studies scholars, psychologists and psychiatrists have studied the modern field of "cults" and new religious movements since the early 1970s. Debates about certain purported cults and about cults in general often become polarized with widely divergent opinions, not only among current followers and disaffected former members, but among scholars as well. Most academics agree that some groups have become problematic or very problematic but disagree over the extent to which new religious movements in general cause harm.<ref>David G. Bromley and Phillip E. Hammond, eds. ''The Future of New Religious Movements''. Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, 1987.</ref> An article on the categorization of new religious movements in US media criticizes the print media for failing to recognize social-scientific efforts in the area of new religious movements and its tendency to use anti-cultist definitions rather than social-scientific insight."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=van Driel |first1=Barend |last2=Richardson |first2=James T |author2-link=James T. Richardson |date=1988 |title=Research Note Categorization of New Religious Movements in American Print Media |journal=[[Sociology of Religion (journal)|Sociological Analysis]] |language=en |volume=49 |issue=2 |pages=171–183 |doi=10.2307/3711011 |jstor=3711011}}</ref>

Scholars in the field of new religious movements confront many controversial subjects:
* The validity of the testimonies of [[#Former members|former members]].<ref>[[Thomas Robbins (sociologist)|Thomas Robbins]]. "Combatting 'Cults' and 'Brainwashing' in the United States and Western Europe: A Comment on Richardson and Introvigne's Report." ''[[Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion]]'' 40, no. 2 (2001): 169–176.</ref><ref>David G. Bromley, ed. ''Falling from the Faith: Causes and Consequences of Religious Apostasy.'' Sage Focus Editions. London: Sage Publications, 1988.</ref><ref name=":3" />
* The validity of the testimonies of current members.<ref>[[James R. Lewis (scholar)|James R. Lewis]], ed. ''[[Scientology]].'' Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2009.</ref>
* The validity of and differences between [[exit counseling]] and coercive [[deprogramming]].<ref>{{Cite journal |first=Dick |last=Anthony |author-link=Dick Anthony |title=The Fact Pattern behind the Deprogramming Controversy: An Analysis and an Alternative|url=https://socialchangenyu.com/review/fact-pattern-behind-the-deprogramming-controversy-an-analysis-and-an-alternative-the/|access-date=2023-01-02|website=N.Y.U. Review of Law & Social Change|language=en-US |volume=9 |issue=1 |year=1981 |pages=73–89}}</ref><ref>James T. Richardson. ''Conversion Careers: In and Out of the New Religions.'' [[SAGE Publishing|Sage]] Contemporary Social Science Issues. 1977. Reprint, London and Beverley Hills, CA: Sage, 1978.</ref>
* The validity of evidence of harm caused by "cults".<ref>David G. Bromley and J. Gordon Melton, eds. ''Cults, Religion, and Violence.'' [[Cambridge]]: [[Cambridge University Press]], 2002.</ref><ref>[[Massimo Introvigne]]. "'There Is No Place for Us to Go but Up': New Religious Movements and Violence." ''[[Social Compass]]'' 49, no. 1 (2002): 213–224.</ref><ref>Paul R. Powers. ''[[Religion and violence|Religion and Violence]]: A [[Religious studies|Religious Studies]] Approach.'' London and New York: [[Routledge]], 2021.</ref>
* Ethical concerns regarding new religious movements, for example [[free will]] and [[freedom of speech]].<ref name=":6">Dick Anthony and Thomas Robbins. "Law, Social Science, and the 'Brainwashing' Exception to the [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution|First Amendment]]." ''[[Behavioral Sciences & the Law|Behavioral Science and the Law]]'' 10, no. 1 (1992): 5–29.</ref>
* Opposition to "cults" vs. [[freedom of religion]] and [[religious intolerance]].<ref name=":6" /><ref>[[Roy Wallis]]. "Paradoxes of Freedom and Regulation: the Case of New Religious Movements in Britain and America." ''[[Sociological Analysis]]'' 48, no. 4 (1988): 355–371.</ref>
* The objectivity of all scholars studying new religious movements.<ref>Eileen Barker. "Religious Movements: Cult and Anticult Since [[Jonestown]]." ''[[Annual Review of Sociology]]'' 12, no. 1 (1983): 329–346.</ref><ref>Anson D. Shupe and David G. Bromley. ''The New Vigilantes: Deprogrammers, Anti-Cultists, and the New Religions.'' Sage Library of Social Research. London and [[Beverly Hills, California|Beverley Hills, CA]]: Sage, 1980.</ref><ref>Anson D. Shupe and Susan E. Darnell. ''Agents of Discord: Deprogramming, Pseudo-Science, and the American Anticult Movement.'' London and [[New Brunswick, NJ]]: [[Transaction Publishers]], 2006. {{ISBN|0765803232}} {{OL|22732556M}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Misunderstanding Cults: Searching for Objectivity in a Controversial Field |title-link=Misunderstanding Cults |publisher=[[University of Toronto Press]] |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-8020-8188-9 |editor-last=Zablocki |editor-first=Benjamin |editor-link=Benjamin Zablocki |language=en |editor-last2=Robbins |editor-first2=Thomas |editor-link2=Thomas Robbins (sociologist)}}</ref>
* The acceptance or rejection of the [[APA Task Force on Deceptive and Indirect Methods of Persuasion and Control]] report and the [[Brainwashing|brainwashing thesis]] generally.<ref>Alberto Amitrani and Raffaella Di Marzio. "'Mind Control' in New Religious Movements and the [[American Psychological Association]]." ''[[Cultic Studies Review]]'' 17 (2000): 101–121.</ref><ref name=":7">David G. Bromley and James T. Richardson, eds. ''The Brainwashing/Deprogramming Controversy: Sociological, Psychological, Legal and Historical Perspectives''. Studies in Religion and Society. [[Lewiston, New York]]: [[Edwin Mellen Press]], 1983.</ref><ref>Eileen Barker. ''The Making of a [[Moonie]]: Choice or Brainwashing?'' 1984. Reprint, Oxford and Cambridge, MA: Basil Blackwell, 1989.</ref><ref>David G. Bromley and Anson Shupe. "Anti-cultism in the United States: Origins, Ideology and Organizational Development." ''[[Social Compass]]'' 42, no. 2 (1995): 221–236.</ref>

=== Brainwashing and mind-control ===
{{Further|Brainwashing}}
Over the years various controversial theories of [[religious conversion|conversion]] and member retention have been proposed that link mind control to NRMs, and particularly those religious movements referred to as "[[cult]]s" by their critics. These theories resemble the original political brainwashing theories first developed by the [[CIA]] as a propaganda device to combat communism,<ref>Dick Anthony. "[[Pseudoscience]] and [[New religious movement|Minority Religions]]: An Evaluation of the Brainwashing Theories of [[Jean-Marie Abgrall]]." ''[[Social Justice Research]]'' 12, no. 4 (1999): 421–456.</ref> with some minor changes. [[Philip Zimbardo]] discusses mind control as "the process by which individual or collective freedom of choice and action is compromised by agents or agencies that modify or distort perception, motivation, affect, cognition and/or behavioral outcomes,"<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zimbardo |first=Philip G. |date=November 2002 |title=Mind control: psychological reality or mindless rhetoric? |url=https://www.apa.org/monitor/nov02/pc |journal=[[Monitor on Psychology]] |volume=33 |issue=10 |pages=5}}</ref> and he suggests that any human being is susceptible to such manipulation.<ref>{{Cite web|title=What messages are behind today's cults?|first=Philip G.|last=Zimbardo |author-link=Philip Zimbardo |url=https://www.planetdeb.net/spirit/cult.htm|access-date=2023-01-02|website=Monitor on Psychology |date=May 1997}}</ref> In a 1999 book, [[Robert Jay Lifton|Robert Lifton]] also applied his original ideas about thought reform to [[Aum Shinrikyo]], concluding that in this context thought reform was possible without violence or physical coercion.<ref>[[Robert Jay Lifton]]. ''Destroying the World to Save It: [[Aum Shinrikyo|Aum Shinrikyō]], [[Apocalypticism|Apocalyptic Violence]], and The New Global [[Terrorism]].'' New York: [[Henry Holt & Co.]], 1999.</ref> [[Margaret Singer]], who also spent time studying the political brainwashing of Korean prisoners of war, agreed with this conclusion: in her book ''[[Cults in Our Midst]]'' she describes six conditions which would create an atmosphere in which thought reform is possible.<ref>[[Margaret Thaler Singer]]. ''[[Cults in Our Midst]]: The Continuing Fight Against Their Hidden Menace.'' [[San Francisco, CA]]: [[Jossey-Bass]], 2003.</ref>

[[James T. Richardson]] observes that if the NRMs had access to powerful brainwashing techniques, one would expect that NRMs would have high growth rates, yet in fact most have not had notable success in recruitment. Most adherents participate for only a short time, and the success in retaining members is limited.<ref>James T. Richardson. "The Active vs. Passive Convert: [[Paradigm]] Conflict in Conversion/Recruitment Research." ''Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion'' 24, no. 2 (1985): 163–179.</ref> For this and other reasons, sociologists of religion including [[David G. Bromley]] and [[Anson D. Shupe]] consider the idea that cults are brainwashing American youth to be "implausible."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Robinson |first=B. A. |date=22 August 2007 |title=About 'cults': Allegations of brainwashing by new religious movements (a.k.a. 'cults'). |url=http://www.religioustolerance.org/brain_wa.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120419010810/http://www.religioustolerance.org/brain_wa.htm |archive-date=19 April 2012 |access-date=29 May 2022 |website=Religious Tolerance |url-status=usurped |publisher=[[Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance]]}}</ref> In addition to Bromley, [[Thomas Robbins (sociologist)|Thomas Robbins]], [[Dick Anthony]], [[Eileen Barker]], [[Newton Maloney]], [[Massimo Introvigne]], John Hall, [[Lorne L. Dawson]], Anson D. Shupe, [[J. Gordon Melton]], [[Marc Galanter (psychiatrist)|Marc Galanter]], [[Saul Levine]] of [[Mount Wilson FM Broadcasters, Inc]], among other scholars researching NRMs, have argued and established to the satisfaction of courts, relevant professional associations and scientific communities that there exists no scientific theory, generally accepted and based upon methodologically sound research, that supports the brainwashing theories as advanced by the anti-cult movement.<ref>James T. Richardson. "Religion and The Law." In ''The Oxford Handbook of the Sociology of Religion'', edited by Peter B. Clarke. Oxford Handbooks Online, 2009. 426.</ref><ref name=":7" />

=== Deprogramming and exit counseling ===

{{Further|Deprogramming}}

Some members of the secular opposition to cults and to some new religious movements have argued that if brainwashing has deprived a person of their free will, treatment to restore their free will should take place, even if the "victim" opposes this. Precedents for this exist in the treatment of certain [[mental illness]]es: in such cases medical and legal authorities recognize the condition as depriving sufferers of their ability to make appropriate decisions for themselves. But the practice of forcing treatment on a presumed victim of "brainwashing" (one definition of "[[deprogramming]]") has constantly proven controversial. [[Human-rights]] organizations (including the [[ACLU]] and [[Human Rights Watch]]) have criticized deprogramming.<ref>{{Cite news|first=Eleanor|last=Blau|date=6 February 1977|title=A.C.L.U. AIDE WARNS ON SEIZING CULTISTS; A Danger Is Seen in Actions by Parents Who Seek to 'Deprogram' Children Held Brainwashed|work=The New York Times |url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1977/02/06/936907202.html?pageNumber=175|access-date=2023-01-02|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.hrw.org/reports/2002/china/ |title=Dangerous meditation : China's campaign against Falungong |date=2002 |publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]] |isbn=156432270X |location=New York, NY |lccn=2002100348 |oclc=49045959}}</ref> While only a small fraction of the anti-cult movement has had involvement in deprogramming, several deprogrammers (including a deprogramming pioneer, [[Ted Patrick]]) have served prison terms for acts sometimes associated with deprogramming including kidnapping, while courts have acquitted others.<ref name="nyt-08301980" /><ref>{{Cite news|title='Cult Buster' Acquitted In Abduction |url=https://archive.seattletimes.com/archive/?date=19940119&slug=1890492|access-date=2023-01-02|work=[[Seattle Times]] |date=19 January 1994}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{wiktionary|cult}}
* [[Governmental lists of cults and sects]]
* [[Christian countercult movement]]
* [[Parliamentary Commission on Cults in France]] (1995)
* ''[[QAnon Anonymous]]'' – podcast debunking [[QAnon]] (the latter commonly referred to as a cult)
* [[Religious persecution]]
* [[Brainwashing]]

== References ==

{{reflist|1=2|refs=
<ref name="sakurai">{{Cite web |first=Yoshihide |last=Sakurai |url=https://eprints.lib.hokudai.ac.jp/dspace/bitstream/2115/32409/1/SAKURAI.pdf |title=The Cult Problem in Present-Day Japan |work=Journal of Graduate School of Letters |publisher=[[Hokkaido University]] |date=2008}}</ref>
}}

{{Opposition to NRMs}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Anti-cult movement}}
[[Category:Anti-cult movement| ]]
[[Category:Religious activism]]
[[Category:Religious discrimination]]
[[Category:Social movements]]
[[Category:Witch hunting]]