Editing Oneness Pentecostalism (section)

==Theology==
Oneness Pentecostalism has a historical precedent in the [[Modalistic Monarchianism]] of the second and third centuries.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Modalistic Monarchianism|url=https://www.ligonier.org/learn/devotionals/modalistic-monarchianism/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201119015708/https://www.ligonier.org/learn/devotionals/modalistic-monarchianism/|archive-date=November 19, 2020|access-date=19 November 2020|website=Ligonier Ministries|language=en}}</ref> The early movement affirmed two central aspects of later Oneness belief:
#There is one indivisible God with no distinction of persons or components within God's eternal essence.
#Jesus was the manifestation, human personification, and/or incarnation of the same singular God.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Wolfgang |last1=Vondey |title=Pentecostalism, A Guide for the Perplexed |publisher=T&T Clark |year=2012 |page=77 }}</ref>

Oneness Pentecostals contend, based on [[Colossians 2:9]], that the concept of God's personhood is reserved for the immanent and incarnate presence of Jesus only.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Kerry D. |last1=McRoberts |chapter=The Holy Trinity |title=Systematic Theology |editor1-first=Stanley M. |editor1-last=Horton |location=Springfield, MO |publisher=Logion |year=2007 |page=173 }}</ref>

===Doctrine of God===
Oneness theology maintains that God is a singular spirit who is absolutely and indivisibly unitary, not three persons, individuals, or minds.<ref>{{cite book |first1=David |last1=Bernard |url=http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/pentecostal/One-Top.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080216034825/http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/pentecostal/One-Top.htm |archive-date=February 16, 2008 |title=The Oneness of God |publisher=Word Aflame Press |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-912315-12-6 |page=10}}</ref><ref>Talmadge French, ''Our God is One'', Voice and Vision Publishers, 1999, {{ISBN|978-1-888251-20-3}}.{{page needed|date=September 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Norris |first1=David |title=I AM: A Oneness Pentecostal Theology |date=4 September 2009 |publisher=Word Aflame Press |isbn=978-1565630000 |page=5 |chapter=Oneness Pentecostalism |quote=On the other hand, Oneness adherents decry any ontological distinction between persons "in the Godhead."}}</ref> They contend that the terms "[[God the Father|Father]]", "[[Son of God|Son]]", and "[[Holy Ghost]]" (or "Holy Spirit") are titles reflecting the different personal manifestations of God in the universe.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|date=10 June 2009|title=Oneness Pentecostalism: Heresy, Not Hairsplitting|url=https://www.equip.org/article/oneness-pentecostalism-heresy-not-hairsplitting/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201119015133/https://www.equip.org/article/oneness-pentecostalism-heresy-not-hairsplitting/|archive-date=19 November 2020|access-date=19 November 2020|website=Christian Research Institute}}</ref> To Oneness believers, the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are three manifestations of one personal God.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Oneness Pentecostalism|url=http://www.religionfacts.com/oneness-pentecostalism|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201119024500/http://www.religionfacts.com/oneness-pentecostalism|archive-date=19 November 2020|access-date=19 November 2020|website=ReligionFacts|language=en}}</ref>

Oneness theologians often quote a phrase used by early pioneers of the movement: "God was manifested as the Father in creation, the Son in redemption, and the Holy Ghost in emanation."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.upcbaypoint.com/onegodtruth.html |title=The Truth About One God |website=United Pentecostal Church of Bay Point |access-date=21 August 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150817001820/http://www.upcbaypoint.com/onegodtruth.html |archive-date=17 August 2015}}</ref> However, Oneness theologian David Norris points out that this does not mean that Oneness Pentecostals believe that God can only be one of those manifestations at a time, which may be suggested by the quote.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Norris |first1=David |title=I AM: A Oneness Pentecostal Theology |date=4 September 2009 |publisher=Word Aflame Press |isbn=978-1565630000 |page=238 |chapter=Epilogue |quote=Sometimes, in a kind of echo of Haywood's profession, one will encounter a Pentecostal preacher offering a sound byte about God: "He is the Father in creation, Son in redemption, and Holy Spirit in sanctification." But they do not mean (as Haywood did not) that there is some sort of "dilation" where the Father became the Son (without remainder and ceased to be the Father) and then, subsequently the Son became the Spirit (and ceased to be the Son).}}</ref> Oneness theologian [[David K. Bernard]] also teaches that God is not limited to these three manifestations.<ref name=":02">{{cite book |last1=Bernard |first1=David |url=http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/pentecostal/One-Ch6.htm |title=The Oneness of God |publisher=Word Aflame Press |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-912315-12-6 |chapter=Father, Son, and Holy Ghost |quote=The Bible speaks of Father, Son, and Holy Ghost as different manifestations, roles, modes, titles, attributes, relationships to man, or functions of the one God, but it does not refer to Father, Son, and Holy Ghost as three persons, personalities, wills, minds, or Gods. God is the Father of us all and in a unique way the Father of the man Jesus Christ. God manifested himself in flesh in the person of Jesus Christ, called the Son of God. God is also called the Holy Spirit, which emphasizes his activity in the lives and affairs of mankind. God is not limited to these three manifestations; however, in the glorious revelation of the one God, the New Testament does not deviate from the strict monotheism of the Old Testament. Rather, the Bible presents Jesus as the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost. Jesus is not just the manifestation of one of three persons in the Godhead, but he is the incarnation of the Father, the Jehovah of the Old Testament. Truly, in Jesus dwells all the fulness of the Godhead bodily. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080209202633/http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/pentecostal/One-Ch6.htm |archive-date=February 9, 2008}}</ref>

According to Oneness theology, the Father and the Holy Spirit are the same personal God. It teaches that the term "Holy Spirit" is a descriptive title for God manifesting himself through the broader Christian Church.<ref name=":12">{{cite book|last1=Bernard|first1=David|url=http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/pentecostal/One-Ch6.htm|title=The Oneness of God|publisher=Word Aflame Press|year=1993|isbn=978-0-912315-12-6|chapter=The Father is the Holy Ghost|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080209202633/http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/pentecostal/One-Ch6.htm|archive-date=February 9, 2008}}</ref><ref name=":16">{{cite book|first1=David| last1=Bernard| title=A Handbook of Basic Doctrines|publisher=Word Aflame Press|date= 1 September 1988|isbn=978-0932581372}}{{page needed|date=September 2017}}</ref> These two titles—as well as others—do not reflect divisible persons within the Godhead, but rather two different ways in which the one God reveals himself to his creatures. Thus, when the [[Old Testament]] ([[Hebrew Bible]]) speaks of "the Lord God and his Spirit" in [[Isaiah 48]]:16, it does not indicate two distinct persons, according to Oneness theology. Instead, "the Lord" means God in all his glory and transcendence, while "his Spirit" refers to his Holy Spirit that moved upon and spoke to the Hebrew prophets. Bernard states that this passage does not imply two persons any more than the numerous scriptural references to a man and his spirit or soul (such as in [[Luke 12]]:19) imply two "persons" existing within one body.<ref>{{cite book |first1=David |last1=Bernard |chapter=The Lord God and His Spirit |chapter-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080212180425/http://ourworld.compuserve.com:80/homepages/pentecostal/One-Ch7.htm |url=http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/pentecostal/One-Top.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080216034825/http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/pentecostal/One-Top.htm |archive-date=16 February 2008 |title=The Oneness of God |publisher=Word Aflame Press |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-912315-12-6 }}{{page needed|date=September 2017}}</ref> Bernard asserts that it is unbiblical to describe God as a plurality of persons in any sense of the word, "regardless of what persons meant in ancient church history."<ref>{{cite book |first1=David |last1=Bernard |chapter=Trinitarianism: An Evaluation |chapter-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080212180425/http://ourworld.compuserve.com:80/homepages/pentecostal/One-Ch7.htm |url=http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/pentecostal/One-Top.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080216034825/http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/pentecostal/One-Top.htm |archive-date=16 February 2008 |title=The Oneness of God |publisher=Word Aflame Press |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-912315-12-6 |page=287 |quote=Speaking of God as a plurality of persons further violates the biblical concept of God. Regardless of what persons meant in ancient church history, today the word definitely connotes a plurality of individuals, personalities, minds, wills and bodies. Even in ancient church history, we have shown that the vast majority of believers saw it as a departure from biblical monotheism.}}</ref>

Oneness Pentecostals maintain that early Christianity taught a form of strict [[monotheism]] consistent with their view, contrasting their views not only with Trinitarianism but equally with the theology espoused by [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|Latter-day Saints]] (who believe that Jesus is a separate god from the Father and the Spirit), and by [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] and [[Unitarianism|Unitarians]] (who deny the full deity of Jesus and view him as a created being distinct from and subordinate to the Father).<ref>{{cite web |last1=Bowman, Jr. |first1=Robert M. |title=Oneness Pentecostalism |url=https://www.apostolic.edu/oneness-pentecostalism-2/ |website=Apostolic Information Service |publisher=[[Indiana Bible College]] |access-date=9 December 2025 |date=23 August 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Evangelism 2,10 – Personal Evangelism, Continued |url=https://www.apostolic.edu/evangelism-210-personal-evangelism-continued/ |website=Apostolic Information Service |publisher=[[Indiana Bible College]] |access-date=9 December 2025 |date=10 December 2014}}</ref> The Oneness position as [[Nontrinitarianism|nontrinitarian]] places them at odds with most mainstream Nicene [[List of Christian denominations|Christian denominations]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Trinity |url=https://religionfacts.com/trinity |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220109041633/https://religionfacts.com/trinity |archive-date=2022-01-09 |access-date=2025-07-26 |website=religionfacts.com |language=en |quote=Christianity is a monotheistic religion, meaning that it teaches the existence of one God (specifically, the God of the Jews). It shares this belief with two other major world religions, Judaism and Islam. However, Christian monotheism is a unique kind of monotheism. It holds that God is One, but that three distinct "persons" constitute the one God: the Father, the Son (Christ), and the Holy Spirit. This unique threefold God of Christian belief is referred to as the Trinity (tri + unity). The doctrine of the Trinity is accepted by all "mainstream" branches of Christianity (Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Protestant and Anglican) and in fact is one of the major defining factors for what is considered mainstream. But the doctrine of the Trinity is rejected by a number of other faiths that consider themselves Christian, including Mormonism, Jehovah's Witnesses, and Unitarian Universalism.}}</ref> and some [[apologetics]] ministries and writers have categorized Oneness groups as [[cult]]s.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lang |first=J. Stephen |date=1 April 2002 |title='Jesus Only' Isn't Enough |url=https://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2002/april1/22.60.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201119024127/https://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2002/april1/22.60.html |archive-date=19 November 2020 |access-date=19 November 2020 |website=Christianity Today |language=en}}</ref><ref name="auto">{{Cite journal|title=The Other Pentecostals|last1=Grady|first1=J.|journal=Charisma Magazine|date=June 1997}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last1=S|first1=Fred|last2=On|first2=Ers|date=3 May 2014|title=Oneness Pentecostalism: An Analysis|url=https://scriptoriumdaily.com/oneness-pentecostalism-an-analysis/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220109042320/https://scriptoriumdaily.com/oneness-pentecostalism-an-analysis/|archive-date=9 January 2022|access-date=9 January 2022|website=The Scriptorium Daily|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>Burgos Jr., Michael R., ''Against Oneness Pentecostalism: An Exegetical-Theological Critique'', 2nd Ed., (Winchester, CT: Church Militant Pub., 2016), {{ISBN|978-0692644065}}, 181-191; Hindson, Ed, Caner, Ergun eds., ''The Popular Encyclopedia of Apologetics'', (Eugene, OR: Harvest House Pub., 2008), 371-376, {{ISBN|978-0736920841}};  Nichols, Larry A., Mather, George A., Schmidt, Alvin J., ''Encyclopedic Dictionary of Cults, Sects, and World Religions'', Rev. and Updated Ed., (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2006), 221-225, {{ISBN|978-0310239543}}.</ref> However, David A. Reed, a Trinitarian scholar at [[Wycliffe College, Toronto|Wycliffe College]] and a leading academic authority on Oneness Pentecostalism,<ref name="UPCIDKB" /> disagrees.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Reed |first1=David |title=Oneness Pentecostalism: Problems and Possibilities for Pentecostal Theology |journal=Journal of Pentecostal Theology |date=1 January 1997 |volume=5 |issue=11 |pages=73–93 |doi=10.1177/096673699700501104 |url=https://brill.com/view/journals/pent/5/11/article-p73_4.xml |access-date=7 May 2025 |language=en |issn=0966-7369|url-access=subscription }}</ref> He contends in his book ''"In Jesus' Name": The History and Beliefs of Oneness Pentecostals'' that the movement should be considered theologically [[Heterodoxy|heterodox]], rather than [[Heresy|heretical]] or cultish.<ref name="ReedInJesusName" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=French |first1=Talmadge |title="In Jesus' Name": A Key Resource on the Worldwide Pentecostal Phenomenon & the Oneness, Apostolic, or Jesus' Name Movement |journal=[[Pneuma: The Journal of the Society for Pentecostal Studies]] |date=2009 |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=267–274 |doi=10.1163/027209609X12470371387921}}</ref>

==== Accusations of Modalism and Arianism ====
Oneness believers are frequently identified with [[Modalism]].<ref name="Bernard The Council of Nicea">{{cite book |first1=David |last1=Bernard |chapter=The Council of Nicea |chapter-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071130181956/http://ourworld.compuserve.com:80/homepages/pentecostal/One-Ch11.htm |url=http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/pentecostal/One-Top.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080216034825/http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/pentecostal/One-Top.htm |archive-date=16 February 2008 |title=The Oneness of God |publisher=Word Aflame Press |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-912315-12-6}}</ref> Additionally, some critics{{em-dash}}usually individuals rather than denominational bodies{{em-dash}}have also alleged that Oneness theology bears resemblance to [[Arianism]] or [[Semi-Arianism]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Exchanged Life Outreach |url=http://www.exchangedlife.com/Sermons/topical/trinity.shtml |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110710211315/http://www.exchangedlife.com/Sermons/topical/trinity.shtml |archive-date=10 July 2011 |access-date=20 May 2009}}</ref> While Bernard acknowledges similarities between Oneness theology, [[Modalistic Monarchianism]], and the teachings of [[Sabellius]], he rejects associations with [[Patripassianism]], [[Arianism]] or [[Subordinationism]] that have historically been linked to some modalistic views. Bernard argues that Oneness theology represents a distinct, biblical form of modalism that differs from some traditional formulations and interpretations historically deemed heretical.<ref name=":7"/><ref name="Bernard The Council of Nicea"/>

===Son of God===
According to Oneness theology, the Son of God did not exist (in any substantial sense) before the incarnation of [[Jesus of Nazareth]] except as the ''[[Logos (Christianity)|logos]]'' (or word) of God. They believe that the humanity of Jesus did not exist before the [[Incarnation (Christianity)|Incarnation]], but that Jesus [[Pre-existence of Christ|pre-existed]] in his deity (not his humanity) as the eternal God. This belief is supported by the lack of Jesus' incarnate presence anywhere in the Old Testament (Hebrew Bible).<ref name=":5">{{cite book|last1=Bernard|first1=David|url=http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/pentecostal/One-Ch5.htm|title=The Oneness of God|publisher=Word Aflame Press|year=1993|isbn=978-0-912315-12-6|chapter=Begotten Son or Eternal Son?|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080411183805/http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/pentecostal/One-Ch5.htm|archive-date=11 April 2008}}</ref> Thus, Oneness Pentecostals believe that the title "Son" only applied to [[Christ (title)|the Christ]] when he became flesh on earth. The Father in this theology embodies the divine attributes of the Godhead, and the Son embodies the human aspects. Oneness Pentecostals believe that Jesus and the Father are one essential person, though operating in different modes.<ref name=":4" />

Oneness author W. L. Vincent writes, "The argument against the 'Son being his own Father' is a red herring. It should be evident that Oneness theology acknowledges a clear distinction between the Father and Son–in fact this has never been disputed by any Christological view that I am aware of."<ref name=":12" />

====The Word====
Oneness theology holds that "[[Logos (Christianity)|the Word]]" in [[John 1:1]] was God's mind or plan. Oneness Pentecostals believe that the Word was not a separate person from God but that it was the plan of God and God itself. Bernard writes in his book ''The Oneness View of Jesus Christ'', 
{{Blockquote|In the Old Testament, God's Word (dabar) was not a distinct person but was God speaking, or God disclosing Himself (Psalm 107:20; Isaiah 55:11). To the Greeks, the Word (logos) was not a distinct divine person, but reason as the controlling principle of the universe. The noun logos could mean thought (unexpressed word) as well as speech or action (expressed word). In John 1, the Word is God's self-revelation or self-disclosure. Before the Incarnation, the Word was the unexpressed thought, plan, reason, or mind of God.<ref name=":OnenessJesus">{{cite book|last1=Bernard|first1=David|title=The Oneness View of Jesus Christ|publisher=Word Aflame Press|year=1994|isbn=1-56722-020-7}}</ref>}}
Bernard additionally claims that the Greek word ''pros'' (translated as "with" in John 1:1) could also be translated as "pertaining to", meaning that John 1:1 could also be translated as (in his view) "The Word pertained to God and the Word was God."<ref name="The Oneness of God">{{cite book |first1=David |last1=Bernard |url=http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/pentecostal/One-Top.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080216034825/http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/pentecostal/One-Top.htm |pages=60–61 |archive-date=16 February 2008 |title=The Oneness of God |publisher=Word Aflame Press |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-912315-12-6}}</ref>

In the incarnation, Oneness believers hold that God put the Word (which was his divine plan) into action by manifesting himself in the form of the man Jesus, and thus "the Word became flesh".<ref>{{bibleverse|John|1:14|KJV}}</ref> As an extension, Oneness Pentecostalism argues that the incarnation was a singular event unlike anything God has done prior or will ever do again.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Norris |first1=David |title=I AM: A Oneness Pentecostal Theology |date=4 September 2009 |publisher=Word Aflame Press |isbn=978-1565630000 |page=161 |chapter=The Man Who Preexisted |quote=...and of course, the Incarnation is one of a kind-it is unique, as it is expressed in the rest of the verse.}}</ref> Oneness Pentecostals believe that the Word of John 1:1 does not imply a second pre-existent, divine person but that the Word is simply the plan of God, which was put into action through the incarnation.<ref name="The Oneness of God"/>

====The dual nature of Christ====
{{Main|Hypostatic union}}

When discussing the [[Incarnation (Christianity)|incarnation]], Oneness theologians and authors often refer to a concept known as the dual nature of Christ, which is understood as the union of human and divine natures in the man Jesus. Bernard describes this concept in his book ''The Oneness of God'', stating that Jesus "is both Spirit and flesh, God and man, Father and Son. On his human side, He is the Son of man; on his divine side, He is the Son of God and is the Father dwelling in the flesh."<ref>{{cite book |first1=David |last1=Bernard |url=http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/pentecostal/One-Top.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080216034825/http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/pentecostal/One-Top.htm |archive-date=February 16, 2008 |title=The Oneness of God  |chapter=Jesus is God |publisher=Word Aflame Press |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-912315-12-6 |pages=69–70}}</ref> Oneness Pentecostals see this not as two persons in one body but instead as two natures united in one person: Jesus.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Dulle |first1=Jason |title=The Dual Nature of Christ |url=https://www.onenesspentecostal.com/dualnature.htm |website=Institute for Biblical Studies |access-date=6 November 2021 |quote=...Jesus' natures never worked independent of one another. His two natures exist "without confusion, without change, without division, without separation; the difference of the natures having been in no wise taken away by reason of the union, but rather the properties of each being preserved...."}}</ref> Oneness believers see the mystery referred to in [[1 Timothy 3:16]] as referencing this concept of two natures being united in the one person of Jesus.<ref>{{cite book |first1=David |last1=Bernard |url=http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/pentecostal/One-Top.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080216034825/http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/pentecostal/One-Top.htm |archive-date=February 16, 2008 |title=The Oneness of God |publisher=Word Aflame Press |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-912315-12-6 |pages=63–64 |chapter=Jesus is God}}</ref>

Although the Oneness belief in the union of the divine and human into one person in Jesus is similar to the [[Chalcedonian]] formula, Chalcedonians disagree sharply with them over their opposition to Trinitarian dogma. Chalcedonians see Jesus as a single person uniting God the Son—the eternal second person of the Trinity—with human nature.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Catholic Encyclopedia: Hypostatic Union |url=https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07610b.htm |access-date=2025-03-03 |website=www.newadvent.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Weinandy |first=Thomas |title=The Hypostatic Union: History and Dogmatic Reality |url=https://churchlifejournal.nd.edu/articles/the-hypostatic-union-history-and-dogmatic-reality/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240223032701/https://churchlifejournal.nd.edu/articles/the-hypostatic-union-history-and-dogmatic-reality/ |archive-date=2024-02-23 |access-date=2025-03-03 |website=Church Life Journal |date=3 April 2023 |language=en-US |url-status=live }}</ref> Oneness believers, on the other hand, see Jesus as one single person uniting the one God himself with human nature as the Son of God.

===Scripture===
Oneness Pentecostalism subscribes to the doctrine of ''[[sola scriptura]]'' in common with mainstream Pentecostals and other Protestants.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Pentecostals and Sola Scriptura|url=https://www.apostolictheology.org/2008/10/pentecostals-and-sola-scriptura.html|access-date=13 April 2021|language=en-GB|date=30 October 2008|website=Apostolic Theology}}</ref> They view the Bible as the [[Biblical inspiration|inspired]] Word of God, and as absolutely [[Biblical inerrancy|inerrant]] in its contents (though not necessarily in every translation). They specifically reject the conclusions of church councils such as the [[First Council of Nicaea]] and the [[Nicene Creed]]. They believe that mainstream Christians have been misled by long-held and unchallenged "traditions of men".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.1lord1faith.org/wm/Oneness/1TrinDebate.htm|last1=Raddatz|first1=Tom|title=A Response to the Oneness-Trinity Debate|date=20 March 2005|access-date=31 March 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050320000616/http://www.1lord1faith.org/wm/Oneness/1TrinDebate.htm |archive-date=20 March 2005}}</ref>

===The name of Jesus===
The overwhelming emphasis on the person of Jesus shapes the content of a theology based on experience among both Oneness and Trinitarian Pentecostals. In principle, the doctrinal emphasis on Jesus attributes all divine qualities and functions to the Christ. What might, therefore, be called a 'Christological maximalism' in the Pentecostal doctrine of God among Oneness Pentecostals leads to a factual substitution of the three divine persons with the single person of Jesus. At the same time, Trinitarian Pentecostals typically elevate Jesus from the second person of the Trinity to the [[Christocentrism|central figure of Christian faith and worship]].<ref>{{cite book |first1=Wolfgang |last1=Vondey |title=Pentecostalism, A Guide for the Perplexed |publisher=Bloomsbury |year=2013 |page=84|isbn=978-0567522269
}}</ref>

Critics of Oneness theology commonly refer to its adherents as "[[Baptism in the name of Jesus|Jesus Only]]", implying that they deny the existence of the Father and Holy Spirit.<ref name=fp123-4/> Most Oneness Pentecostals consider that term to be pejorative and a misrepresentation of their true beliefs on the issue.<ref name="RGCOPF" /><ref name=":History59">{{cite book|last1=Bernard|first1=David|title=A History of Christian Doctrine, Volume Three: The Twentieth Century A.D. 1900–2000|date=1999|publisher=Word Aflame Press|location=Hazelwood, MO|page=59|isbn=978-1567222210
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/christianity/subdivisions/pentecostal_1.shtml| title=Pentecostalism |website=BBC |access-date=18 October 2021 |date=2 July 2009 |quote="The Oneness movement is sometimes referred to as the "Jesus Only" churches, but this is a somewhat derogatory name and should be avoided." }}</ref> Oneness believers insist that while they do indeed believe in baptism only in the name of Jesus Christ, to describe them as "Jesus Only Pentecostals" implies a denial of the Father and Holy Spirit.<ref name=":History59" />

===View of the Trinity===
Oneness Pentecostals assert that the doctrine of the Trinity is not explicitly found in Scripture and view it as a post-biblical development. They argue that the concept of God as three co-equal persons is not explicitly taught in the Bible, noting the absence of terms such as "Trinity" or "persons" in reference to God in the Bible. Instead, they believe the doctrine emerged gradually over the first few centuries of the church and was formalized through [[creed]]s at the [[Ecumenical council|councils]] of [[First Council of Nicaea|Nicaea]] (325 AD) and [[First Council of Constantinople|Constantinople]] (381 AD).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yong |first1=Amos |title=Oneness and the Trinity: The Theological and Ecumenical Implications of Creation Ex Nihilo for an Intra-Pentecostal Dispute |journal=[[Pneuma: The Journal of the Society for Pentecostal Studies]] |date=1 January 1997 |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=81–107 |doi=10.1163/157007497X00064 |url=https://brill.com/view/journals/pneu/19/1/article-p81_6.xml |access-date=7 May 2025 |language=en |issn=0272-0965|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=The Jesus Name Movement |url=https://www.apostolicarchives.com/articles/article/8795236/172416.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201119023034/https://www.apostolicarchives.com/articles/article/8795236/172416.htm |archive-date=19 November 2020 |access-date=19 November 2020 |website=www.apostolicarchives.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=David |last1=Bernard |url=http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/pentecostal/One-Top.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080216034825/http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/pentecostal/One-Top.htm |archive-date=February 16, 2008 |title=The Oneness of God |publisher=Word Aflame Press |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-912315-12-6 |page=263|chapter=Trinitarianism: Definition and Historical Development|quote=There is no question that Christian trinitarianism developed over several centuries of time after the New Testament was written.}}</ref>

This historical claim is not unique to Oneness Pentecostals. Some editions of the ''Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church'', ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'', and the ''[[Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]'', among others, note that Trinitarianism formally developed over the early centuries as a response to theological controversies.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Cross |first1=F. L. |last2=Livingstone |first2=E. A. |editor-first1=F. L. |editor-first2=E. A. |editor-last1=Cross |editor-last2=Livingstone |title=Trinity, doctrine of the |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780192802903.001.0001/acref-9780192802903-e-6964?rskey=c5EMNA&result=6941 |website=Oxford Reference |publisher=Oxford University Press |access-date=6 May 2025 |language=en |doi=10.1093/acref/9780192802903.001.0001 |date=2009 |isbn=978-0-19-280290-3 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Trinity |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Trinity-Christianity |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=6 May 2025 |language=en |date=22 April 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Baber |first1=H.E. |title=Trinity |url=https://iep.utm.edu/trinity/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=6 May 2025}}</ref><ref name=":14">{{cite journal |last1=Tuggy |first1=Dale |title=Trinity |journal=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |date=20 November 2020 |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/trinity/index.html |access-date=14 July 2025 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University}}</ref> The ''[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]'' states that no Christian theologians were Trinitarian for the first three centuries, with a diverse range of views regarding the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tuggy |first1=Dale |title=History of Trinitarian Doctrines (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) |journal=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |date=2020 |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/trinity/trinity-history.html |access-date=14 July 2025 |language=en |quote="No theologian in the first three Christian centuries was a trinitarian in the sense of believing that the one God is tripersonal, containing equally divine “Persons”, Father, Son, and Holy Spirit... As this sort of theology features no tripersonal God, it is misleading to call it 'trinitarian.'"}}</ref> Prominent biblical scholars such as [[James D.G. Dunn]], [[Raymond E. Brown]], [[N.T. Wright]], and [[Larry Hurtado]], affirm that while the [[New Testament]] portrays Jesus and the Holy Spirit in ways that laid the groundwork for later formalized Trinitarian theology, it does not present the fully developed doctrine. They describe the Trinity as a theological synthesis formed in the post-apostolic era, drawing on the New Testament's presentation of Jesus and the Spirit within a monotheistic framework.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dunn |first1=James D. G. |title=Christology in the making: a New Testament inquiry into the origins of the doctrine of the Incarnation |date=1996 |publisher=W.B. Eerdmans Pub. Co |location=Grand Rapids, Mich |isbn=0802842577 |edition=2nd}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Brown |first1=Raymond Edward |title=An introduction to New Testament Christology |date=1994 |publisher=Paulist Press |location=New York |isbn=0809135167}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Wright |first1=N. T. |title=Paul and the Faithfulness of God: Two Book Set |date=2013 |publisher=Fortress Press |location=Erscheinungsort nicht ermittelbar |isbn=978-0800626839}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Hurtado |first1=Larry W. |title=God in New Testament theology |date=2010 |publisher=Abingdon Press |location=Nashville, Tenn |isbn=978-0687465453}}</ref>

Other scholars argue that Trinitarian doctrine represents a theological departure from the [[wikt: Unitarian|unitarian]] [[monotheism]] of the [[Early Christianity|earliest Christians]].<ref name="GezaBook">{{cite book |last1=Vermès |first1=Géza |title=Christian beginnings: from Nazareth to Nicaea |date=2013 |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven |isbn=978-0300205954}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Ehrman |first1=Bart |title=The Trinity! A Final Summation |url=https://ehrmanblog.org/the-trinity-a-final-summation/ |website=The Bart Ehrman Blog |access-date=21 November 2025 |date=10 June 2021 |quote=The earliest Christians inherited a strict monotheism from Judaism.}}</ref> [[Bart Ehrman]], an [[agnostic]] historian of [[Early Christianity]], and [[Jews|Jewish]] scholar [[Géza Vermes]] contend that neither Jesus nor his earliest followers taught Trinitarian concepts and that the doctrine was a product of later reflection.<ref name="GezaBook"/><ref>{{cite web |last1=Ehrman |first1=Bart |title=Is the Trinity in the Bible? |url=https://ehrmanblog.org/is-the-trinity-in-the-bible/ |website=The Bart Ehrman Blog |date=6 January 2021}}</ref> Jewish scholars such as [[Daniel Boyarin]], and [[Alan F. Segal]] have examined how [[Second Temple Judaism|Second Temple Jewish]] concepts—such as divine agency and the "two powers" tradition—provided theological categories that early Christians adapted in ways that eventually contributed to Trinitarian thought. Both Jewish scholars document how concepts of divine agency informed early Christian understandings of Jesus, but neither identifies the Trinity as a biblically or historically continuous doctrine.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Segal |first1=Alan F. |title=Two powers in heaven: early rabbinic reports about Christianity and Gnosticism |date=2012 |publisher=Baylor University Press |location=Waco, Tex |isbn=978-1602585492}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Boyarin |first1=Daniel |title=The Jewish gospels: the story of the Jewish Christ |date=2013 |publisher=The New Press |location=New York |isbn=978-1595588784 |edition=Paperback}}</ref> 

Trinitarian theologians and apologists maintain that the doctrine represents a faithful synthesis of biblical revelation, developed more fully in response to early heresies and theological disputes. Figures such as [[Alister McGrath]] and [[Karl Rahner]] argue that the Trinity accurately expresses both the unity of God and the relational distinctions found in Scripture.<ref>{{cite book |last1=McGrath |first1=Alister E. |title=Christian theology: an introduction |date=2017 |publisher=Blackwell |location=Chichester, West Sussex |isbn=9781118869574 |edition=25}}</ref> Rahner, for instance, argued that "the [[Trinity#Economic and immanent Trinity|economic Trinity is the immanent Trinity]]," proposing that God's self-revelation in salvation history corresponds to his eternal triune identity.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rahner |first1=Karl |last2=Donceel |first2=J. |title=Trinity |date=2001 |publisher=Continuum International Publishing |location=London |isbn=0860120155}}</ref> They maintain that the Trinity, though not formulated in creedal terms during the apostolic era, accurately expresses the unity and distinction presented in Scripture.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Doctrine of the Trinity at Nicaea and Chalcedon|url=https://www.str.org/w/the-doctrine-of-the-trinity-at-nicaea-and-chalcedon|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220109040544/https://www.str.org/w/the-doctrine-of-the-trinity-at-nicaea-and-chalcedon|archive-date=9 January 2022|access-date=9 January 2022|website=Stand To Reason}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Wayne|first=Luke|date=7 January 2017|title=The Trinity before Nicea|url=https://carm.org/doctrine-and-theology/the-trinity-before-nicea/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220109040812/https://carm.org/doctrine-and-theology/the-trinity-before-nicea/|archive-date=9 January 2022|access-date=9 January 2022|website=Christian Apologetics & Research Ministry|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Jehovah's Witnesses: Masters of Misquotation|url=https://www.catholic.com/magazine/print-edition/the-witnesses-masters-of-misquotation|access-date=13 January 2022|last1=Brumley|first1=Mark|date=1 April 1990|website=Catholic Answers}}</ref>

===Views of the early church===
Scholars within the Oneness movement differ in their views on [[church history]]. Some church historians, such as Dr. Curtis Ward, Marvin Arnold, and William Chalfant, hold to a [[Successionism|Successionist view]], arguing that their movement has existed in every generation from the original day of [[Pentecost]] to the present day.<ref>{{cite book |first1= William |last1= Johnson |title= The Church Through the Ages |publisher= Bethesda |year= 2005 |page= 25 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Arnold |first= Marvin M |title= Pentecost Before Azusa: The Acts of the Apostles, Chapter Two; Fanning the Flames of International Revival for Over 2000 Years |year= 2002 |publisher= Bethesda Ministries |isbn= 978-1-58169-091-0}}{{page needed|date= September 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1= William B. |last1= Chalfant |title= Ancient champions of oneness: an investigation of the doctrine of God in church history |publisher= Word Aflame Press |year= 2001 |isbn= 978-0-912315-41-6 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=4oOXAAAACAAJ }}{{page needed|date= September 2017}}</ref> Ward has proposed a theory of an unbroken Pentecostal church lineage, claiming to have chronologically traced its perpetuity throughout the church's history.<ref>{{cite book |first1= William |last1= Johnson |title= The Church Through the Ages |publisher= Bethesda Books |year= 2005 |page= 27 }}
</ref>

Others hold to a [[Restorationism|Restorationist]] view, believing that while the [[Apostles in the New Testament|apostles]] and their church clearly taught Oneness doctrine and the Pentecostal experience, the early apostolic church went into [[apostasy in Christianity|apostasy]], which eventually developed into the institutional forms seen in [[Catholic church|Roman Catholicism]]. For them, the contemporary Oneness Pentecostal movement began in America in the early 20th century during the latter days of the [[Azusa Street Revival]]. Restorationists such as Bernard and Norris deny any direct link between the church of the [[Apostolic age|Apostolic Age]] and the current Oneness movement, believing that modern Oneness Pentecostalism is a total restoration originating from a step-by-step separation within Protestantism culminating in the final restoration of the early apostolic church.<ref name=":1">{{cite book|last1=Bernard|first1=David|url=http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/pentecostal/One-Top.htm|title=The Oneness of God|publisher=Word Aflame Press|year=1993|isbn=978-0-912315-12-6|chapter=Oneness Believers In Church History|chapter-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071130145231/http://ourworld.compuserve.com:80/homepages/pentecostal/One-Ch10.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080216034825/http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/pentecostal/One-Top.htm|archive-date=16 February 2008}}{{page needed|date=September 2017}}</ref><ref name="IAMNorris">{{cite book |last1=Norris |first1=David |title=I AM: A Oneness Pentecostal Theology |date=4 September 2009 |publisher=Word Aflame Press |isbn=978-1567227307 |pages=224–225 |chapter=Rediscovering Covenant}}</ref>

Both Successionists and Restorationists among Oneness Pentecostals assert that the early apostolic church believed in the Oneness and [[Baptism in the name of Jesus|Jesus name baptism]] doctrines. David K. Bernard, a leading Oneness scholar, has written extensively on this subject in works such as ''The Oneness of God'' and ''A History of Christian Doctrine''. Bernard traces Oneness adherents back to the first [[Jewish Christians|converted Jews]] of the Apostolic Age and asserts that there is no evidence of these converts having any difficulty comprehending the [[Christian Church]]'s teachings and integrating them with their existing [[Judaism|Judaic beliefs]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bernard |first1=David K. |title=A History of Christian Doctrine - Volume 1 |date=1995 |publisher=Word Aflame Press |location=Hazelwood, MO |isbn=9781567220360}}</ref> In the post-apostolic era, Bernard contends that the earliest believers, including [[Hermas of Dalmatia|Hermas]], [[Clement of Rome]], [[Polycarp]], [[Polycrates of Ephesus|Polycrates]], [[Ignatius of Antioch|Ignatius]], and [[Irenaeus]] either held to a Oneness-like view of God or followed an "economic Trinity" model that did not reflect eternal personal distinctions within the Godhead.<ref name=":7" /> Bernard theorizes that the majority of all believers were Oneness adherents until the time of [[Tertullian]], quoting Tertullian as writing against [[Praxeas]]:
{{Blockquote|The simple, indeed (I will not call them unwise or unlearned), who always constitute the majority of believers, are startled at the dispensation (of the Three in One), on the very ground that their very Rule of Faith withdraws them from the world's plurality of gods to the one only true God; not understanding that, although He is the one only God, He must yet be believed in with His own economy. The numerical order and distribution of the Trinity, they assume to be a division of the Unity.<ref>{{cite web|author=Tertullian|title=Sundry Popular Fears and Prejudices. The Doctrine of the Trinity in Unity Rescued from These Misapprehensions|url=http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf03.v.ix.iii.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201119022850/https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf03.v.ix.iii.html|archive-date=19 November 2020|work=Against Praxeas}}</ref>}}

As part of his broader critique, Bernard briefly references 19th-century [[Presbyterianism|Presbyterian]] minister [[Alexander Hislop]], who associated Trinitarian doctrine and other early Christian practices with pagan religious influence.<ref name=":13">{{Cite book|last=Bernard|first=David|url=http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/pentecostal/One-Ch11.htm|title=The Oneness of God|publisher=Word Aflame Press|year=1993|isbn=978-0-912315-12-6|chapter=Trinitarianism: Definition and Historical Development|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071130181956/http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/pentecostal/One-Ch11.htm|archive-date=30 November 2007|url-status=dead}}</ref> Contemporary scholars widely reject Hislop's claims as unreliable;<ref>{{Cite book|last=Grabbe|first=Lester L.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K2hIY_E_ngYC&pg=PA28|title=Can a 'history of Israel' be Written?|date=1997-01-01|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-1-85075-669-9|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Blind Spot: A Tale of Two Babylons|url=https://www.historicalblindness.com/blogandpodcast//blind-spot-a-tale-of-two-babylons|access-date=7 November 2021|website=Historical Blindness|language=en-US|date=26 March 2019|first1=Nathaniel|last1=Lloyd}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=23 April 2021|title=No, Easter wasn't named after a Mesopotamian goddess|url=https://www.aap.com.au/factcheck/no-easter-wasnt-named-after-a-mesopotamian-goddess/|access-date=9 January 2022|website=Australian Associated Press|language=en|quote=Church historian and emeritus professor of history at Massey University in Auckland, [[Peter Lineham]], told AAP FactCheck: "Hislop's tendency was to think if it sounds the same it must be connected. That was the logic he used. It's a wonderful book because it's full of imagination and nonsense. It's fantastic but utterly misconceived."}}</ref> however, Bernard's core argument rests not on Hislop but on patristic sources and the biblical absence of explicitly tri-personal language.<ref name=":7" /> Oneness theologians such as Norris have also advanced alternative lines of argument based on biblical exegesis and early Christian texts.<ref name="IAMNorris" />

In contrast to Bernard's theory, Trinitarian scholars suggest the writings of Ignatius and Irenaeus teach an eternal Trinity,<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|title=What the Early Church Believed: God in Three Persons|url=https://www.catholic.com/tract/god-in-three-persons|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210929014304/https://www.catholic.com/tract/god-in-three-persons|archive-date=29 September 2021|access-date=13 April 2021|website=Catholic Answers}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Hanson |first1=Mark |title=Tracing the Thread of Trinitarian Thought from Ignatius to Origen |url=https://www.mbu.edu/seminary/tracing-the-thread-of-trinitarian-thought-from-ignatius-to-origen/ |website=Maranatha Baptist Seminary |access-date=30 September 2021 |date=30 December 2011 }}</ref> though Norris disagrees with them in his book ''I AM: A Oneness Pentecostal Theology'', arguing that writers like Ignatius should not be retroactively read through the lens of fourth-century Trinitarian orthodoxy.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Norris |first1=David |title=I AM: A Oneness Pentecostal Theology |date=4 September 2009 |publisher=Word Aflame Press |isbn=978-1565630000 |page=161 |chapter=Moving Away from Orthodoxy}}</ref>