Editing Harmony Society (section)

==Settlements in the United States==
In 1804, while Rapp and his associates remained in the United States looking for a place to settle, his followers sailed to America aboard several vessels and made their way to western Pennsylvania, where they waited until land had been selected for their new settlement.<ref>Arndt, ''George Rapp's Harmony Society'', p. 65–69.</ref> Rapp was able to secure a large tract of land in Pennsylvania and started his first [[commune (intentional community)|commune]], known as Harmonie or Harmony, in Butler County, Pennsylvania,<ref>Arndt, ''George Rapp's Harmony Society'', p. 72.</ref> where the Society existed from 1804 to 1815.<ref name=beginnings189>Karl J. R. Arndt, ''The Harmony Society from its beginnings in Germany in 1785 to its Liquidation in the United States in 1905'' (Philadelphia: [[American Philosophical Society]], 1953), p. 189.</ref> It soon grew to a population of about 800, and was highly profitable. Ten years later, the town was sold and the Harmonists moved westward to the [[Indiana Territory]], where they established the town of Harmony, now called New Harmony, Indiana, and remained there from 1815 to 1825.<ref name=beginnings189/> The Indiana settlement was sold to [[Robert Owen]] and was renamed New Harmony. Ten years after the move to Indiana the commune moved again, this time returning to western Pennsylvania, and named their third and final town Economy ({{Lang|de|Ökonomie}} in German).<ref name=engineers>{{cite web|author=David Schwab, comp.|title=The Harmony Society|publisher=U.S. Army Corps of Engineers–Pittsburg District|date=2010-05-20|url=http://www.lrp.usace.army.mil/lmon/harmony.htm|access-date=2012-06-04|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120207155204/http://www.lrp.usace.army.mil/lmon/harmony.htm|archive-date=2012-02-07}}</ref> The Harmonists lived in Economy until the Society was dissolved in 1905.<ref name=beginnings189/>

===Articles of association===
On February 15, 1805, the settlers at Harmony, Pennsylvania, signed articles of association to formally establish the Harmony Society in the United States. In this document, Society members agreed to hold all property in a common fund, including working capital of $23,000 to purchase land, livestock, tools, and other goods needed to establish their town.<ref>Arndt, ''George Rapp's Harmony Society'', p. 71.</ref> The agreement gave the Society legal status in the United States and protected it from dissolution. Members contributed all of their possessions, pledged cooperation in promoting the interests of the group, and agreed to accept no pay for their services. In return, the members would receive care as long as they lived with the group. Under this agreement, if a member left the Society, their funds would be returned without interest or, if they had not contributed to the Society's treasury, they would receive a small monetary gift.<ref name=Bole3334>Bole, p. 33–34.</ref>

The Society was a religious congregation who submitted to spiritual and material leadership under Rapp and his associates and worked together for the common good of all its members.<ref>Arndt, ''George Rapp's Harmony Society'', p. 75.</ref> Believing that the [[Second Coming|Second Coming of Christ]] would occur during their lifetimes, the Harmonists contented to live simply under a strict religious doctrine, gave up tobacco, and advocated celibacy.<ref name=engineers/>

===First settlement: Harmony, Pennsylvania===
[[Image:HarmonyPAmuseum.jpg|thumb|Harmony Society building in [[Harmony, Pennsylvania]], built in 1809.]]
{{main|Harmony, Pennsylvania}}

In December 1804 Rapp and a party of two others initially contracted to purchase {{convert|4,500|acre|km2}} of land for $11,250 in Butler County, Pennsylvania,<ref>William E. Wilson, ''The Angel and the Serpent: The Story of New Harmony'' (Bloomington: [[Indiana University Press]], 1964), p. 13.</ref> and later acquired additional land to increase their holdings to approximately {{convert|9,000|acre|km2}} by the time they advertised their property for sale in 1814.<ref>Arndt, ''George Rapp's Harmony Society'', p. 135, 137.</ref> Here they built the town of Harmony, a small community that had, in 1805, nearly 50 log houses, a large barn, a [[gristmill]], and more than 150 acres of cleared land to grow crops.<ref>Arndt, ''George Rapp's Harmony Society'', p. 76.</ref>

Because the climate was not well suited for growing grapes and nearby property was not available to expand their landholdings, the Harmonists submitted a petition to the U.S. government for assistance in purchasing land elsewhere. In January 1806 Rapp traveled to Washington, D.C. to hear discussions in Congress regarding the Harmonists' petition for a grant that would allow them to purchase approximately {{convert|30,000|acre|km2}} acre of land in the Indiana Territory. While the Senate passed the petition on January 29, it was defeated in the House of Representatives on February 18. The Harmonists had to find other financial means to support their plans for future expansion.<ref>Arndt, ''George Rapp's Harmony Society'', p. 84, 86–90.</ref> By 1810 the town's population reached approximately 700, with about 130 houses. The Society landholdings also increased to {{convert|7,000|acre|km2}}.<ref>Christiana F. Knoedler, ''The Harmony Society: A 19th-Century American Utopia'' (New York: Vantage Press, 1954), p. 10–11.</ref> In the years that followed, the Society survived disagreements among its members, while shortages of cash and lack of credit threatened its finances. Still, the young community had a good reputation for its industry and agricultural production.<ref>Arndt, ''George Rapp's Harmony Society'', p. 92.</ref>

At Harmony, George Rapp, also known as Father Rapp, was recognized as the spiritual head of the Society, the one that they went to for discussions, confessions, and other matters.<ref name=usi>{{cite web|author= Historic New Harmony|title= The Harmonie Society|publisher= [[University of Southern Indiana]]|year= 2008|url= http://www.usi.edu/hnh/pdf/Expanded%20Text%20on%20the%20Harmonist%20Society.pdf|access-date= 2012-06-13|url-status= dead|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120330112904/http://www.usi.edu/hnh/pdf/Expanded%20Text%20on%20the%20Harmonist%20Society.pdf|archive-date= 2012-03-30}}</ref> Rapp's adopted son, Frederick, managed the Society's business and commercial affairs.<ref>Wilson, p. 15–16.</ref>

Rapp let newcomers into the Society and, after a trial period, usually about a year, they were accepted as permanent members.<ref name=Bole3334/> While new members continued to arrive, including immigrants from Germany, others found the Harmonists' religious life too difficult and left the group.<ref>Arndt, ''George Rapp's Harmony Society'', p. 100.</ref> In addition, during a period of religious zeal in 1807 and 1808, most, but not all, of the Harmonists adopted the practice of [[celibacy]] and there were also few marriages among the members. Rapp's son, Johannes, was married in 1807; and it was the last marriage on record until 1817.<ref>Arndt, ''George Rapp's Harmony Society'', p. 97–99.</ref> Although Rapp did not entirely bar sex initially, it gradually became a custom and there were few births in later years.<ref>Wilson, p. 24–25.</ref>

In 1811 Harmony's population rose to around 800 persons involved in farming and various trades.<ref>Arndt, ''George Rapp's Harmony Society'', p. 121.</ref> Although profit was not a primary goal, their finances improved and the enterprise was profitable, but not sufficient to carry out their planned expansions.<ref>Arndt, ''George Rapp's Harmony Society'', p. 123–127.</ref> Within a few years of their arrival, the Harmonist community included an inn, a tannery, warehouses, a brewery, several mills, stables, and barns, a church/meetinghouse, a school, additional dwellings for members, a labyrinth, and workshops for different trades. In addition, more land was cleared for vineyards and crops. The Harmonists also produced yarn and cloth.<ref>Arndt, ''George Rapp's Harmony Society'', p. 105–107, 112.</ref>

Several factors led to the Harmonists' decision to leave Butler County. Because the area's climate was not suitable, they had difficulties growing grapes for wine.<ref>Arndt, ''George Rapp's Harmony Society'', p. 84.</ref> In addition, as westward migration brought new settlers to the county, making it less isolated, the Harmonists began having troubles with neighbors who were not part of the Society.<ref>Arndt, ''George Rapp's Harmony Society'', p. 130–131.</ref> By 1814 Butler County's growing population and rising land prices made it difficult for the Society to expand, causing the group's leaders to look for more land elsewhere.<ref>Arndt, ''George Rapp's Harmony Society'', p. 133.</ref> Once land had been located that offered a better climate and room to expand, the group began plans to move.<ref>Ray E. Boomhower, "New Harmony: Home to Indiana's Communal Societies," ''Traces of Indiana and Midwestern History'', 14(4):36.</ref> In 1814 the Harmonites sold their first settlement to Abraham Ziegler, a  [[Mennonite]], for $100,000 (~${{Format price|{{Inflation|index=US-GDP|value=100000|start_year=1814}}}} in {{Inflation/year|US-GDP}}) and moved west to make a new life for themselves in the Indiana Territory.<ref>Wilson, p. 37–38.</ref>

===Second settlement: Harmony, Indiana===
[[Image:NewHarmonyIndiana.jpg|thumb|Harmony Society buildings in [[New Harmony, Indiana]].]]
{{Main|New Harmony, Indiana}}

In 1814 the Harmony Society moved to the Indiana Territory, where it initially acquired approximately {{convert|3,500|acre|km2}} of land along the [[Wabash River]] in Posey County and later acquired more.<ref>Arndt, ''George Rapp's Harmony Society'', p. 145.</ref> Over the next ten years the Society built a thriving new community they called Harmonie or Harmony on the Wabash in the Indiana wilderness. (The town's name was changed to New Harmony after the Harmonists left in 1824.) The Harmonists entered into agriculture and manufacture on a larger scale than they had done in Pennsylvania. When the Harmonists advertised their Indiana property for sale in 1824, they had acquired {{convert|20,000|acre|km2}} of land, {{convert|2,000|acre|km2}} of which was under cultivation.<ref>Arndt, ''George Rapp's Harmony Society'', p. 295.</ref>

During the summer and fall of 1814, many Harmonists fell sick from fever ([[malaria]]) and work on the new town nearly ceased.<ref>Arndt, ''George Rapp's Harmony Society'', p. 147.</ref> During this time the Society lost about 120 people and others fell ill until conditions were improved and the swamps around the area were drained.<ref name=usi /> Despite these illnesses, construction of the new town continued. By 1819 the Harmonites had built 150 log homes, a church, a community storehouse, barns, stables, and a tavern, along with thriving shops and mills, and cleared land for farming.<ref>Arndt, ''George Rapp's Harmony Society'', p. 206–207.</ref> As the new settlement in Indiana grew, it also began to attract new arrivals, including emigrants from Germany, who expected the Harmonists to pay for their passage to America.<ref>Arndt, ''George Rapp's Harmony Society'', p. 182–198.</ref>

Visitors to the new town commented on its growing commercial and industrial work. In 1819 the town had a steam-operated wool carding and spinning factory, a brewery, distillery, vineyards, and a winery,<ref>Karl J. R. Arndt, ''A Documentary History of the Indiana Decade of the Harmony Society 1814–1824'' (Indianapolis: [[Indiana Historical Society]], 1975), 1:744–745.</ref> but not all visitors were impressed with the growing communal town on the frontier.<ref>Arndt, ''A Documentary History of the Indiana Decade of the Harmony Society'', 1:784.</ref> The Society also had visitors from another communal religious society, the [[Shakers]]. In 1816 meetings between the Shakers and Harmonists considered a possible union of the two societies, but  religious differences between the two groups halted the union.<ref>Arndt, ''A Documentary History of the Indiana Decade of the Harmony Society'', 1:225–229.</ref> Members of the groups remained, however, in contact over the years. George Rapp's daughter and others lived for a time at the Shaker settlement in [[West Union (Busro), Indiana|West Union, Indiana]], where the Shakers helped a number of Harmonites learn the [[English language]].<ref>Arndt, ''A Documentary History of the Indiana Decade of the Harmony Society'', 1:230.</ref>

The Harmonist community continued to thrive during the 1820s. The Society shipped its surplus agricultural produce and manufactured goods throughout the Ohio and Mississippi valleys or sold them through their stores at Harmony and Shawneetown and their agents in Pittsburgh, Saint Louis, Louisville, and elsewhere.<ref>Bole, p. 79.</ref> Under Frederick Rapp's financial management the Society prospered, but he soon wished for a location better suited to manufacturing and commercial purposes.<ref name=Bole91>Bole, p. 91.</ref> They had initially selected the land near the Wabash River for its isolation and opportunity for expansion, but the Harmonites were now a great distance from the eastern markets and trade in this location was not to their liking. They also had to deal with unfriendly neighbors.<ref name=usi /> As [[Abolitionism in the United States|abolitionists]], the Harmonites faced disagreeable elements from slavery supporters in [[Kentucky]], only {{convert|15|mi|km}} away, which caused them much annoyance.{{citation needed|date=June 2012}} By 1824 the decision had been made to sell their property in Indiana and search for land to the east.<ref>Arndt, ''George Rapp's Harmony Society'', p. 287.</ref>

On January 3, 1825, the Harmonists and [[Robert Owen]], a Welsh-born industrialist and social reformer, came to a final agreement for the sale of the Society's land and buildings in Indiana for $150,000. Owen named the town New Harmony, and by May, the last of the Harmony Society's remaining members returned to Pennsylvania.<ref>Arndt, ''George Rapp's Harmony Society'', p. 298.</ref>

===Third settlement: Economy, Pennsylvania===
{{Main|Old Economy Village}}
[[Image:RappHouseOldEconomyPA.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The Rapp house in [[Old Economy Village|Old Economy Village, Pennsylvania]].]]

[[Image:GrottoandHarmonyStatue.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Grotto (far left) and statue of [[Harmonia (mythology)|Harmonia]] in the Harmony Society gardens in [[Old Economy Village|Old Economy Village, Pennsylvania]].]]

In 1824 Frederick Rapp initially purchased {{convert|1,000|acre|km2}} along the [[Ohio River]], {{convert|18|mi|km}} northwest of [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania]], for $10,000, and later bought an additional {{convert|2,186| acre|km2}} for $33,445, giving the Society more than {{convert|3,000|acre|km2}} to develop into a new community.<ref>Knoedler, p. 19, 22.</ref> The Harmonites named their third and last town Economy, after the spiritual notion of the [[Divine Economy]], "a city in which God would dwell among men" and where perfection would be attained.<ref>Arndt, ''George Rapp's Harmony Society'', p. 306.</ref>

At Economy the Harmonists intended to become more involved in manufacturing and their new town on the Ohio River provided better access to eastern markets and water access to the south and west than they had in Indiana.<ref name=Bole91/> By 1826 the Harmonists had woolen and cotton mills in operation as well as a steam-operated grain mill.<ref>Knoedler, p. 23.</ref> The Harmonist society also ran a wine press, a hotel, post office, saw mills, stores, and a variety of farms.<ref>[http://digital.library.pitt.edu/cgi-bin/f/findaid/findaid-idx?c=ascead;cc=ascead;q1=John%20M.%20Tate;rgn=main;view=text;didno=US-PPiU-dar194602 John M. Tate, Jr. Collection of Notes, Pictures and Documents relating to the Harmony Society, 1806-1930, DAR.1946.02], Darlington Library, Special Collections Department, University of Pittsburgh</ref> Here, under the business acumen and efficient management of Frederick Rapp, they enjoyed such prosperity that by 1829 they dominated trade and the markets of [[Pittsburgh]] and down the Ohio River. The Harmonists' competitors accused them of creating a [[monopoly]] and called on state government to dissolve the group.<ref name=engineers/> Despite the attacks, the Harmonists developed Economy into a prosperous factory town, engaged in farming on a large scale, and maintained a brewery, distillery, and wine-making operation.<ref>Bole, p. 107.</ref> They also pioneered the manufacturing of silk in the United States.<ref>Arndt, ''The Harmony Society from its beginnings in Germany in 1785 to its Liquidation in the United States in 1905'', p. 190.</ref>

The community was not neglectful of matters pertaining to art and culture. Frederick Rapp purchased artifacts and installed a museum containing fine paintings and many curiosities and antiques, but it proved to be unprofitable and was sold at a loss.<ref name=Bole148>Bole, p. 148.</ref> In addition, the Harmonists maintained a [[Medieval deer park|deer park]], a floral park, and a maze, or labyrinth. The Harmonists were fond of music and many of the members were accomplished musicians. They sang, had a band/orchestra, composed songs, and gave much attention to its cultivation.<ref>Knoedler, p. 79–83.</ref> By 1830 they had amassed a 360-volume library.<ref name=Bole148/>

In 1832 the Society suffered a serious division. Of 750 members, 250 became alienated through the influence of [[Bernhard Müller]] (self-styled Count de Leon), who, with 40 followers (also at variance with the authorities in [[Europe|the old country]]), had come to Economy to affiliate with the Society. Rapp and Leon could not agree; a separation and apportionment of the property were therefore agreed upon. This secession of one-third of the Society, which consisted mostly of the flower of young manhood and young womanhood who did not want to maintain the custom of celibacy, broke Frederick's heart. He died within two years. It resulted in a considerable fracturing of the community. Nevertheless, the Society remained prosperous in business investments for many more years to come.

After Frederick Rapp's death in 1834, George Rapp appointed Romelius Baker and Jacob Henrici as trustees to manage the Society's business affairs.<ref>Daniel B. Reibel, ''A Guide to Old Economy'' (Old Economy, PA: Harmonie Associates, 1969), p. 8–9.</ref> After George Rapp's death in 1847,  the Society reorganized. While a board of elders was elected for the enforcement of the Society's rules and regulations, business management passed to its trustees: Baker and Henrici, 1847–68; Henrici and Jonathan Lenz, 1869–90; Henrici and Wolfel, 1890; Henrici and John S. Duss, 1890–1892; Duss and Seiber, 1892–1893; Duss and Reithmuller, 1893–1897;Duss, 1897–1903; and finally to Suzanna (Susie) C. Duss in 1903.<ref>Bole, p. 141–142, 229.</ref><ref>Arndt, ''George Rapp's Successors and Material Heirs'', p. 99.</ref> By 1905 membership had dwindled to just three members and the Society was dissolved.<ref name=reibel9>Reibel, p. 9.</ref>

The settlements at Economy remained economically successful until the late 19th century, producing many goods in their cotton and woolen factories, sawmill, tannery, and from their vineyards and distillery.<ref>Bole, p. 97, 107, 113.</ref> They also produced high quality [[silk]] for garments. Rapp's granddaughter, Gertrude, began the silk production in Economy on a small scale from 1826 to 1828, and later expanded.<ref>Knoedler, p. 58–60.</ref> This was planned in New Harmony, but fulfilled when they arrived at Economy.<ref name=usi/> The Harmonists were industrious and utilized the latest technologies of the day in their factories. Because the group chose to adopt celibacy and their members grew older, more work gradually had to be hired out. As their membership declined, they stopped manufacturing operations, other than what they needed for themselves, and began to invest in other ventures such as the oil business, coal mining, timber, railroads, land development, and banking.<ref name=reibel9/> The group invested in the construction of the [[Pittsburgh and Lake Erie Railroad]], established the Economy Savings Institution and the Economy Brick Works, and operated the Economy Oil Company,<ref>Bole, p. 133, 135.</ref> as well as the Economy Planing Mill, Economy Lumber Company, and eventually donated some land in [[Beaver Falls, Pennsylvania|Beaver Falls]] for the construction of [[Geneva College]]. The Society exerted a major influence on the economic development of [[Western Pennsylvania]].<ref>Knoedler, p. 148.</ref>

Oil production in the mid-1860s brought the high-water mark of the Society's prosperity.<ref>Bole, p. 133.</ref> By the close of Baker's administration in 1868, The Society's wealth was probably $2 million (~${{Format price|{{Inflation|index=US-GDP|value=2000000|start_year=1868}}}} in {{Inflation/year|US-GDP}}).{{citation needed|date=June 2012}} By 1890, however, the Society was in debt and on the verge of bankruptcy with a depleted and aged membership. In addition, the Society faced litigation from previous members and would-be heirs. The Society's trustee, John S. Duss, settled the lawsuits, liquidated its business ventures, and paid the Society's indebtedness.<ref name=reibel9/> The great strain which he had undergone at this time undermined his health and he resigned his trusteeship in 1903.<ref>J. S. Duss, ''The Harmonists: A Personal History'' (Harrisburg: Pennsylvania Book Service, 1943), p. 359–360.</ref> With only a few members left, the remaining land and assets were sold under the leadership of Duss's wife, Susanna (Susie), and the Society was formally dissolved in 1905.<ref name=reibel9/> At the time of the Society's dissolution, its net worth was $1.2 million.<ref>Arndt, ''George Rapp's Successors and Material Heirs'', p. 328.</ref>

In 1916 the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania acquired {{convert|6|acre|km2}} and 17 buildings of Economy, which became the Old Economy Village historic site. The [[American Bridge Company]] had already acquired other parts of the Society's land in 1902 to build the town of [[Ambridge, Pennsylvania|Ambridge]].<ref name=reibel9/>