Editing Geography of Indonesia (section)

===Tectonism and volcanism===
{{main|Volcanoes of Indonesia}}
Most of the larger islands are mountainous, with peaks ranging between {{convert|2000|and|3800|m|0}} meters above sea level in Sumatra, Java, Bali, Lombok, Sulawesi, and Seram.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GwRWAAAAYAAJ&q=Indonesia+landform+mountain+range|title=Focus on Indonesia|date=1976|publisher=Information Division, Embassy of Indonesia|language=en}}</ref> The country's tallest mountains are located in the [[Jayawijaya Mountains]] and the [[Sudirman Range]] in Papua. The highest peak, [[Puncak Jaya]] ({{convert|4884|m|0}}), is located in the Sudirman Mountains. A string of volcanoes stretches from Sumatra to Nusa Tenggara,<ref>{{cite book|title=Indonesia|last=Witton|first=Patrick|publisher=Lonely Planet|year=2003|isbn=1-74059-154-2|location=Melbourne|page=38}}</ref> then loops around through to the [[Banda Islands]] of Maluku to northeastern Sulawesi. Of the 400 volcanoes, approximately 150 are active.<ref name="gvp">{{cite web|url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/region.cfm?rnum=06&rpage=list|title=Volcanoes of Indonesia|work=[[Global Volcanism Program]]|publisher=[[Smithsonian Institution]]|access-date=25 March 2007}}</ref> Two of the most violent volcanic eruptions in modern times occurred in Indonesia; in 1815, [[Mount Tambora]] in [[Sumbawa]] erupted, killing 92,000, and in 1883, [[Krakatau]] erupted, killing 36,000. While volcanic ashes resulted from eruption has positive effects for the fertility of the surrounding soils, it also makes agricultural conditions unpredictable in some areas.

[[Image:Map indonesia volcanoes.gif|thumb|446x446px|A map of [[List of volcanoes in Indonesia|Indonesia's volcanoes]].]]
Indonesia has relatively high tectonic and volcanic activities. It lies on the convergence between the [[Eurasian plate|Eurasian]], [[Indo-Australian plate|Indo-Australian]], [[Pacific plate|Pacific]], and [[Philippine Sea plate]]. The [[Sunda megathrust]] is a 5,500&nbsp;km long fault located off southern coasts of Sumatra, Java and Lesser Sunda Islands, where the Indo-Australian Plate is thrusting northeastward towards the subducting Sunda Plate. Tectonic movement in this fault is responsible for the creation of the [[Sunda Trench]], and mountain ranges across Sumatra, Java, and the Lesser Sunda Islands.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WOmRkO9fsiwC&q=Sunda+megathrust+trench+mountain&pg=PA2|title=From the Ground Up: Perspectives on Post-Tsunami and Post-Conflict Aceh|last1=Daly|first1=Patrick|last2=Feener|first2=R. Michael|last3=Reid|first3=Anthony J. S.|date=2012|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies|isbn=9789814345194|language=en}}</ref> Many great earthquakes occurred in the vicinity of the fault, such as the [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami|2004 Indian Ocean earthquake]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1bY6DwAAQBAJ&q=%22Sunda+megathrust%22&pg=PA69|title=Geohazards in Indonesia: Earth Science for Disaster Risk Reduction|last1=Cummins|first1=P. R.|last2=Meilano|first2=I.|date=2017-10-25|publisher=Geological Society of London|isbn=9781862399662|language=en}}</ref> [[Mount Merapi]], located in the Java portion of the megathrust, is the most active [[volcano]] in Indonesia and is designated as one of world's [[Decade Volcanoes]] due to the hazard it poses to the surrounding populated areas.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1j0AaQXWORkC&q=Merapi+decade+volcanoes&pg=PA1418|title=Geodetic And Geophysical Effects Associated With Seismic And Volcanic Hazards|last=Fernandez|first=José|date=2004-06-25|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=9783764370442|language=en}}</ref> The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami devastated the Indonesian provinces of Aceh and North Sumatra, resulting in approximately 225,000 deaths and leaving over 425,000 people homeless. The disaster caused significant damage to infrastructure, homes, and local industries. The Indonesian government, in partnership with international organizations like the IMF, World Bank, and ADB, coordinated relief and reconstruction efforts. Preliminary assessments estimated the reconstruction cost at $4-5 billion over five years. During a donor meeting in January 2005, nearly $4 billion in aid was pledged for reconstruction, with a focus on transparency and efficient fund management. Despite the severe local impact, the overall effect on Indonesia’s national GDP was limited, as the Aceh region contributed only about 2% of national output. The Paris Club also offered a temporary debt moratorium, which helped fund rebuilding without diverting domestic financial resources.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Preliminary Assessment of the Macroeconomic Impact of The Tsunami Disaster on Affected Countries, and of Associated Financing Needs |url=https://www.imf.org/external/np/oth/2005/020405.htm |access-date=2024-11-16 |website=www.imf.org}}</ref>

The northern part of Sulawesi and Maluku Islands lie on the convergence of Sunda Plate and [[Molucca Sea plate]], making it an active tectonic region with volcanic chains such as the [[Sangihe Islands|Sangihe]] and [[Talaud Islands]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9YFGGjz1oVsC&q=Sunda+Molucca+Sea+Plate&pg=PA29|title=Dynamics of Crustal Magma Transfer, Storage and Differentiation|last1=Annen|first1=Catherine|last2=Zellmer|first2=Georg F.|date=2008|publisher=Geological Society of London|isbn=9781862392588|language=en}}</ref> Northern Maluku and western New Guinea is located on the convergence of [[Bird's Head plate|Bird's Head]], [[Philippine Sea plate|Philippine Sea]] and [[Caroline plate]]. It is also a seismically active region, with the 7.6 [[Moment magnitude scale|M<sub>w</sub>]] [[2009 Papua earthquakes]] being the most recent great earthquake to date in the region.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FyQUAQAAIAAJ&q=Philippine+Caroline+Bird's+Head+Plate|title=Tectonic Evolution of Southeast Asia|last1=Hall|first1=Robert|last2=Blundell|first2=Derek John|date=1996|publisher=Geological Society|isbn=9781897799529|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1bY6DwAAQBAJ&q=2009+Manokwari+earthquake&pg=PA103|title=Geohazards in Indonesia: Earth Science for Disaster Risk Reduction|last1=Cummins|first1=P. R.|last2=Meilano|first2=I.|date=2017-10-25|publisher=Geological Society of London|isbn=9781862399662|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://earthquaketrack.com/quakes/2009-01-03-22-33-40-utc-7-4-23|title=7.4 magnitude earthquake near Manokwari, West Papua, Indonesia : January 03, 2009 22:33|website=earthquaketrack.com|language=en|access-date=2018-02-06}}</ref>