Editing Inochentism (section)

==History==
===Beginnings===
The roots of Inochentism relate to Russian rule in Bessarabia (the [[Bessarabia Governorate]]), when the [[Russian Orthodox Church]] was prevalent and official. According to Inochentist tradition, [[Cosăuți]]-born 19-year-old Ioan Levizor was sent by his father to carry some papers to the ''[[starosta]]'' of the nearby village of Iorjnița (now both villages are in Moldova). When he passed the chapel marking the place of an ancient monastery, he is alleged to have heard voices saying "Ioan! The time has come! Hurry up!" three times and three days later, while passing by the same place, he saw the [[Mother of God]], an appearance which convinced him to become a Russian Orthodox monk at the nearby [[Monastery of Dobrușa]].<ref>Clay, pp. 251–252.</ref>

Levizor spent three years at the monastery, where he acted as a [[Foolishness for Christ|holy fool]], pretending to be a madman in order to push the others toward [[Religious experience|spiritual awakening]]. According to his hagiography, the other monks disliked him and Levizor suffered from this, finding his comfort in the Holy Mother's supernatural visits. Despite his unpopularity among the monks, his superior [[Archimandrite]] Porfiri entrusted him with the keys of the monastery, a position from which he used to help those in need, including giving monastery property to the nuns of a nearby convent.<ref>Clay, p. 252.</ref> In 1897, Levizor left the monastery and wandered across the Russian Empire, moving from monastery to monastery, eventually returning to the Bessarabian [[Noul Neamț Monastery]], founded by [[Romanian Orthodox Church|Romanian Orthodox]] monks from [[Neamț Monastery|Neamț]].<ref>Clay, p. 253.</ref> In 1899, the new [[Archbishop of Chișinău|Bishop of Kishinev]], [[Iacov Piatnitki|Yakov]], became more open to the use of [[Romanian language]] in religious contexts. This allowed the creation of a [[Moldavia]]n monastery in [[Balta, Ukraine|Balta]] (now in Ukraine) dedicated to [[Feodosie Levitzky]], a priest known for his philanthropic activities. It was here that Levizor took the monastic name Inochenție.<ref name="jec254">Clay, p. 254.</ref>

With the [[Most Holy Synod|Holy Synod]]'s approval, in 1909, Inochenție moved Feodosie's remains from the cemetery into the church of the monastery. According to hagiographic accounts, a miracle occurred: the "[[pharisee]]s" who tormented Feodosie during his life found themselves unable to reach the founder's tomb, and it was only Inochenție who was able to get there, for which reason the bishop had to ordain him a priest (a simple deacon, story goes, would have not had the proper authority to accomplish that task). Inochenție used his [[Public speaking|oratory]] skills to promote the cult of Feodosie.<ref name= "jec254"/>

===Inochenție's leadership===
[[File:Inochenție of Balta.jpg|thumb|Inochenție of Balta in a contemporary photograph]]
Inochenție, a "Heavenly Emperor", began constructing a "[[New Jerusalem]]" in Balta<ref name="hs105">Sanielevici, p. 105.</ref> and, by 1911, became known as a [[miracle worker]].<ref name="clark">[[Charles Upson Clark]], [http://depts.washington.edu/cartah/text_archive/clark/bc_11.shtml  ''Bessarabia. Russia and Roumania on the Black Sea'': Chapter XI, "Russification of the Church"], [[University of Washington]] Electronic Text Archive.</ref><ref name="king">[[Charles King (professor of international affairs)|Charles King]], ''The Moldovans: Romania, Russia and the Politics of Culture'', [[Hoover Institution|Hoover Institution Press]], Stanford, 2000, pp. 74–75. {{ISBN|0-8179-9792-X}}</ref> The ensuing phenomenon was a mass religious movement of peasants from various parts of Bessarabia, but also from [[Podolia Governorate|Podolia]] and [[Kherson Governorate|Kherson]]; scholar [[Charles Upson Clark]] describes Inochenție's Balta as a "Moldavian [[Lourdes]]".<ref name="clark"/> The new converts considered Inochenție the personification of the [[Holy Spirit (Christianity)|Holy Spirit]].<ref name="Kolarz">[[Walter Kolarz]], ''Religion in the Soviet Union'', [[St. Martin's Press]], New York, 1961, pp. 365–367.</ref>

The hieromonk was at first encouraged by his monastic superiors, but the Imperial Russian government was alarmed by the political implications and the spread of unorthodox practice, including [[glossolalia]]. Officials brought in psychiatrists to investigate the "Balta psychosis"; their reports had it that Inochentism was either an issue of poor nutrition and lack of education (V. S. Yakovenko) or just charlatanism from its leaders (A. D. Kotsovsky).<ref name="Clay, pp. 254–256">Clay, pp. 254–256.</ref> When the large crowds of Bessarabian(Moldavians) who gathered around Inochenție's cloister were identified as a threat, in February/March 1912 he was transferred to a monastery north of [[Saint Petersburg]], in [[Murmansk]], [[Olonets Governorate]].<ref>Clay, p. 258.</ref>

The community of Balta continued to thrive even in the absence of their leader and in December 1912, in response to a letter of Inochenție,<ref name="Clay259">Clay, p. 259.</ref> hundreds of Bessarabian peasants sold their belonging to move in with him in Murmansk.<ref name="clark"/> On February 5, 1913, the local abbot, Archimandrite Merkuri, called on the authorities to remove Inochenție and his disciples from the monastery. Within a few days, the [[Imperial Russian Army|Russian Army]] arrested Inochenție, who was sent to prison in [[Petrozavodsk]], while his followers were sent home in a [[military convoy]].<ref name="Clay259"/>

On August 23, 1913, the Holy Synod condemned Inochenție, whom they found responsible for "spreading demonic and nervous illnesses and even deaths among the people". He remained in prison until he repented; on November 26, 1914, he was released under the supervision of the local bishop.<ref name="Clay259"/> He continued to preach, but in May 1915, he was exiled to [[Solovetsky Monastery]], on the [[White Sea]], living in a [[skete]] on the remote [[Anzersky Island]].<ref name="clark"/><ref name="Clay259"/> Reportedly, the group preserved a mythical version of these events, which presumes that the church founder died a [[martyr]]'s death: "In 1914, the Russians set fire to New Jerusalem, and Inochenție was subject to the most horrifying tortures and torments. For 40 days, he was chained, [[Crown of Thorns|crowned with thorns]] and made to sit naked on broken glass. The saint's hair and nails were torn out with pliers; and for the course of seven days his left rib was poked at with a spear. Upon seeing that the Holy Prophet has braved all these torments, they proceeded to bury him in the earth, leaving only his head above ground, and for 33 more days they kept feeding him poison. On the fortieth day of torture and martyrdom, the sun went dark, and the saint rose to heaven."<ref name="hs105"/>

===Soviet takeover and Bessarabian survival===
Inochenție was however freed following the [[February Revolution]] of 1917 and returned to Balta, reunifying the movement which had been divided by schismatic infighting during his absence.<ref name="Clay259"/> Together with several hundreds followers, mainly female and [[Romanian language|Romanian-speaking]], he founded a [[Communes of Romania|commune]] in [[Ananiv]] raion. The commune (named ''Rai'' or ''Raiu'', "paradise"), was reportedly designed by a [[Bessarabia Germans|Bessarabian German]], and divided along three streets. It covered some 45 hectares, including a vineyard, orchard and garden, a deep pond used in baptism, a wooden church which could hold 600, a hostel and an inner citadel with a tower.<ref>Sanielevici, pp. 108–111.</ref> Also featured was an intricate underground complex of galleries: from it, Inochenție would "ascend to heaven" every evening. These stone "caves" also held private rooms or prayer cells, and were supposedly the most attractive part of the religious complex.<ref>Sanielevici, pp. 109–110.</ref> Inochenție died only months later, toward the end of 1917.<ref name="Clay259"/>

Sources attest that, around 1918, the commune was in the care of Simeon Levizor (Inochenție's brother), assisted in this task by fellow "[[Apostles]]" Iacob of [[Dubăsari]] and Ivan of [[Cosăuți]].<ref>Sanielevici, p. 110.</ref> On September 14, 1920, the monastery was forcefully closed by the [[Bolshevik]]s, while Inochenție's family and the leaders of the Inochentists being either killed or arrested and tried in [[Odesa]].<ref>Clay, p.259</ref> The ''Rai'' establishment continued to function in the 1920s, when Ananiv was included in the [[Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic]]. The new Soviet administration tried to transform it into a ''[[kolkhoz]]''<ref name="king"/> named "From Darkness to Light".<ref name="Kolarz"/> However, in 1930, the Soviet anti-religious newspaper ''[[Bezbozhnik (magazine)|Bezbozhnik]]'' announced that Inochentism had been stamped out of Soviet Moldavia, noting that the sect was still active in [[Union of Bessarabia with Romania|Romanian Bessarabia]].<ref name="Kolarz"/> According to one Romanian account of the mid-1920s, the Inochentists were even making converts in the west and south, among peasants from the "[[Romanian Old Kingdom|Old Kingdom]]".<ref name="hs112">Sanielevici, p. 112.</ref> By the 1940s, the estimated total of Romanian Inochentists was 2,000.<ref>Deletant, p. 187; Ioanid, p. 293.</ref> The surviving Inochentist sections in Soviet lands suffered during the [[Great Purge]]: all the Inochentist nuns still living at ''Rai'' were put to death by the [[NKVD]].<ref>{{in lang|ro}} [[Nicolae Dabija (politician)|Nicolae Dabija]], [http://www.literaturasiarta.md/public/2012ro_Nr_24.pdf "Katyn-uri basarabene"], in ''[[Literatura și Arta]]'', Nr. 24/2010, p. 1.</ref>

In Romanian territories, the movement became the subject of renewed media and political interest, while coming into conflict with the prevalent [[Romanian Orthodox Church]]. The new keepers of Inochentist doctrines, described as by "charlatans" by Clark,<ref name="clark"/> were self-appointed [[patriarch]]s, deemed incarnations of the Holy Spirit or [[Second Coming of Christ|Second Comings of Christ]].<ref name="hs101-105">Sanielevici, pp. 101–105.</ref> The government perceived the movement as "harmful" for Romanian society and in contradiction with public order, so, in 1925, the Inochentist church was officially banned.<ref>Tănase, p. 35.</ref> In 1926, a church leader was arrested by Romanian authorities as he tried to set up a new congregation in [[Budești, Chișinău|Budești]].<ref name="clark"/>

===Romanian state repression===
During mid 1930, the surviving branches were investigated by the authorities, who took with them field reporters from ''[[Dimineața]]'' daily. The resulting reports were compiled and analyzed by Romanian scholar and [[Racialism (racial categorization)|racialist]] [[Henric Sanielevici]], who focused on their allegations about the Inochentists' sexual promiscuity.<ref>Sanielevici, p. 90, 100–115.</ref> At the time, the congregations had resorted to holding mass in Bessarabia's caves, forests and [[catacombs]]; from 1928, the church was presided upon by the 35-year-old Neculai Barbă Roșie ("Red Beard"), formerly a [[Jandarmeria Română|Gendarme]] in [[Cetatea Albă County]], and two "[[eunuch]]s" (Ion Antiminiuc, Ivan Strugarin).<ref name="hs101-105"/>

Successive Romanian governments continued to issue anti-sectarian directives targeting the church. One such act, passed in 1937 by the [[Gheorghe Tătărescu]] cabinet, prohibited the activities of Inochentists, whom it grouped together with the [[Old Calendar Romanian Orthodox Church|Old Calendar Orthodox]], the [[Pentecostal Union of Romania|Pentecostals]], the [[Apostolic Christian Church (Nazarene)|Nazarenes]], the [[Apostolic Faith Church of God]], [[Jehovah's Witnesses Association of Romania|Jehovah's Witnesses]] and [[Bible society|Bible societies]].<ref>{{in lang|ro}} [http://documente.bcucluj.ro/web/bibdigit/periodice/vestitorul/1937/BCUCLUJ_FP_279921_1937_013_017_018.pdf "Interzicerea sectelor și asociațiilor religioase"], in ''Vestitorul'', Nr. 17–18/1937, p. 165 (digitized by the [[Babeș-Bolyai University]] [http://documente.bcucluj.ro/ Transsylvanica Online Library]).</ref> Official Christian propaganda warned Romanians to shun the dissident preachers, who lacked "the godly gift of preaching God's law", be they Inochentists, "[[Evangelical Church of Romania|Tudorites]]" or [[Romanian Union Conference of Seventh-day Adventists|Adventists]].<ref>Pr. P. M., "Pilda talanților", in ''Grănicerul. Publicație Lunară pentru Educația Ostașului Grănicer'', March 1935, p. 37.</ref> Interest in the activities of Inochenție's followers was kept alive by Romanian writer [[Sabin Velican]], in his 1939 novel ''Pământ nou'' ("New Land"); it fictionalizes the movement's alleged sexual practices.<ref>[[George Călinescu]], ''Istoria literaturii române de la origini până în prezent'', [[Editura Minerva]], Bucharest, 1986, p. 928, 1027.</ref>

Bessarabia's Inochentists fared badly during World War II. In 1941, the region changed hands between a [[Soviet occupation of Bessarabia|Soviet administration]] and [[Nazi Germany|Nazi]]-allied Romania. The region's recovery through Romania's participation in [[Operation Barbarossa]] was welcomed by Romanian intellectuals. In a special issue of the official literary magazine, ''[[Revista Fundațiilor Regale]]'', Orthodox theologian [[Gala Galaction]] paid tribute to "the Balta movement" as a Romanian mystical phenomenon, placing in doubt allegations made about the Inochentists' heretical stances.<ref>[[Gala Galaction]], "Mănăstiri basarabene", in ''[[Revista Fundațiilor Regale]]'', Nr. 8–9/1941, p. 369.</ref>

However, in summer 1942, Romanian dictator [[Ion Antonescu]] gave the order that virtually all [[conscientious objector]]s belonging to the Inochentist church to be deported to the concentration camps in [[Transnistria (World War II)|Transnistria]], together with the [[Bessarabian Jews]] and [[Roma minority in Romania|nomadic Roma]].<ref>Deletant, p. 187; Ioanid, pp. 198–199, 293; [[Michael Mann (sociologist)|Michael Mann]], ''The Dark Side of Democracy. Explaining Ethnic Cleansing'', [[Cambridge University Press]], Cambridge etc., 2006, pp. 305, 316. {{ISBN|978-0-521-53854-1}}</ref> During the Antonescu years, Romanian Orthodox Church authorities also received help for setting up a special mission to Transnistria, which was designed to target local Inochentist and [[Baptists|Baptist]] communities.<ref>Paul A. Shapiro, "Faith, Murder, Resurrection. The Iron Guard and the Romanian Orthodox Church", in Kevin P. Spicer, ''Antisemitism, Christian Ambivalence, and the Holocaust'', [[Indiana University Press]], Bloomington, 2007, p. 159. {{ISBN|0-253-34873-0}}</ref> Some Baptists and Jehovah's Witnesses, taken together with the Inochentists, were deported from other areas to internment sites in Transnistria.<ref>Ioanid, pp. 198–199, 293.</ref> At his 1946 trial, Antonescu acknowledged some of these measures: "Many Romanians, unfortunately, joined these sects in order to escape the war [...]. What was the spiritual basis of these sects? To avoid taking up arms and fighting. So when we called them up, they refused to lay their hands on a weapon. There was a general revolt, and so I brought in a law introducing the [[Capital punishment in Romania|death penalty]]. I did not apply it. And I succeeded in getting rid of these sects. The more recalcitrant ones I seized and deported."<ref>Deletant, p. 73.</ref>

===Gulag and later revival===
[[File:Указ Президиума ВС СССР от 30.09.1965.jpg|thumb|220px|1965 ''Ukase'' granting amnesty to Operation North deportees, including the Inochentists.]]
After Bessarabia was again incorporated in the Soviet Union as the [[Moldavian SSR]], the Inochentists gathered their ranks and established a new center in the city of [[Bălți]].<ref name="rlmisteriosii">{{in lang|ro}} [http://www.romanialibera.ro/actualitate/europa/misteriosii-adepti-ai-ieromonahului-eretic-inochentie-187304.html "Misterioșii adepți ai ieromonahului eretic Inochentie"], in ''[[România Liberă]]'' online edition, May 22, 2010; retrieved August 15, 2011.</ref> They were accused by the Soviet authorities of sabotaging the state plan for agricultural deliveries and resisting the [[Collectivization in the Soviet Union|collectivization of agriculture]] by withholding grain from the authorities. This was, however, a thing common to the Moldavian peasants of all religions.<ref name="Kolarz"/> In a memorandum dated October 17, 1946, B. Kozachenko, the Vice-minister of State Security of the Moldavian SSR, reported that virtually every village in four districts of Bessarabia (Bălți, [[Soroca District|Soroca]], [[Orhei]] and [[Chișinău]]) each had a group of Inochentists, and that their priests were among the "most [[reactionary]] and backward".<ref name="Clay259"/> This memorandum resulted in a repression of the Inochentists, which started only a few months later. In January 1947, ten Inochenist leaders were sentenced to terms between six and ten years in the "[[Gulag|corrective labor camps]]".<ref name="jec260">Clay, p. 260.</ref>

On April 6, 1949, [[Operation South]] began, as a mass deportation to [[Siberia]] of people (and their families) who were suspected of [[Anti-Sovietism|anti-Soviet feelings]]. This included 35,000 people, not just wealthy peasants and former landowners, but also members of sects deemed illegal, including Inochentists. Two years later, on March 3, 1951, another wave of deportations began, as [[Operation North]], which also deported all members of the Jehovah's Witnesses. The deportees were allowed to return home only after Soviet leader [[Joseph Stalin]] died and [[Nikita Khrushchev]] gave his famous [[On the Personality Cult and its Consequences|De-Stalinization speech]] of 1956. According to a 1957 report, 150 Inochentists were back in the Moldavian SSR.<ref name="jec260"/>

In April and May 1957, another group of Inochentist leaders were arrested. The main local newspaper, ''[[Sovetskaya Moldaviya]]'', ran attacks on the Inochenitists and a negative propaganda film was made in reference to them. The persecutions were intensified during [[USSR anti-religious campaign (1958–1964)|Khrushchev's campaign of religious persecutions]], which lasted between 1959 and 1964. By the end of the campaign, 20 illegal churches and all the monasteries that supported to the movement from its very beginning had been closed, all of them in the Moldavian SSR.<ref name="jec260"/> Internal memos of the Soviet administration show that the campaign was relatively successful: in 1960, a report had it that the number of Inochenitists dropped from 2,000 to just 250. Nevertheless, their religious group survived and the Soviet authorities continued publishing pamphlets even in the 1980s. In 1987, it was reported that an Inochentist community still existed near the ruins of Inochenție's monastery in Balta, [[Ukrainian SSR]].<ref>Clay, p. 261.</ref> Meanwhile, the location where Inochenție began his mission had been turned into a gym.<ref name="dlbalta">{{in lang|ro}} Dorin Lozovanu, [http://astra.iasi.roedu.net/texte/lozovanu.html "Balta – orașul în care românii nu au spus niciodată ''bună ziua'' pe rusește"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111009104640/http://astra.iasi.roedu.net/texte/lozovanu.html |date=October 9, 2011 }}, in ''Revista Română'' ([[Asociația Transilvană pentru Literatura Română și Cultura Poporului Român|ASTRA]]), Nr. 3/1998.</ref>

Inside Romania, itself under a [[Communist Romania|communist government]] from 1948 to 1989, the Inochentists continued to be explicitly banned alongside Jehovah's Witnesses, Bible students and the other groups listed in 1930s bans. The basic legislation was Government Decree 243, passed in September 1948. It resulted in a circular letter of the [[Ministry of Administration and Interior (Romania)|Internal Affairs Ministry]], which included the listed Inochentists and other Orthodox splinter groups among the lesser threats by comparison with foreign-born new religions, and specified of the former: "These banned religious associations are intensely active in propagating anarchic ideas which damage public opinion and the security of the State. All those who are suspected of being affiliated with these sects are to be held under continuous supervision, tracked down in all their enterprises, and, once certified, they are to be sent to court."<ref>{{in lang|ro}} Nicolae Videnie, [http://www.memoria.ro/?location=view_article&id=1724 "1948. Tragedia bisericilor din România. Legislație"], at the [http://www.memoria.ro/ Memoria Digital Library]; retrieved August 15, 2011.</ref>

Although Inochentism was not included among those movements who could seek assistance abroad, and who were therefore listed as especially dangerous, Romanian officials even assumed that the Inochentists were spying for the United States.<ref>{{in lang|ro}} [[William Totok]], [http://www.observatorcultural.ro/Episcopul-Hitler-si-Securitatea-%28I%29*articleID_12463-articles_details.html "Episcopul, Hitler și Securitatea (I)"], in ''[[Observator Cultural]]'', Nr. 252-253, December 2004.</ref> The discrepancies were noted by researcher Nicolae Ioniță, who found that homegrown sects, Inochentism included, were much more exposed to persecution than international churches.<ref>{{in lang|ro}} Nicolae Ioniță, " 'Martorii lui Iehova' în arhivele Securității române – problema tolerării activității cultului", in [http://www.cnsas.ro/documente/caiete/Caiete_CNSAS_nr_2_2008.pdf ''Caietele CNSAS'', Nr. 2/2008], p. 201.</ref>

An Inochentist revival was taking place in the two decades after the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]]. In the late 1990s, an elderly Inochentist group was still residing in Balta, the "New Jerusalem" envisioned by Inochenție.<ref name="dlbalta"/> Another presence was noticed elsewhere in Ukraine's [[Odesa Oblast]]. The story was covered in 2010 by ''[[Segodnya (1997)|Segodnya]]'' newspaper, who cited cases of Inochentists who awaited the Second Coming, built at a new subterranean monastery, and vocally demanded that Inochenție be recognized a saint of the [[Russian Orthodox Church]] (which still refers to them as to a heretic sect).<ref name="rlmisteriosii"/> Most adherents, however, are residents of either Romania or the [[Republic of Moldova]]—a few thousands, mostly descendants of 1920s converts.<ref name="rlmisteriosii"/>